RESEARCH DATA Lesson 3

LEARNING OUTCOME

Upon completion of the unit the student should have

1. know the Definitions of Research Data
2. understood the different types of data in research
3. understand the concept of Data and their measure
4. know the Types of Research Data
5. know the Difference Between Data & Statistics
6. understand the Data Analysis Software Tools in use.
 DEFINITIONS OF RESEARCH DATA

Research data is any information collected, stored, and

processed to produce and validate original research
results.
Data might be used to prove or disprove a theory, bolster
claims made in research, or to further the knowledge
around a specific topic or problem.
Data come in various types.
They are a representation of reality, and show the results
of measuring properties or processes.
 DATA AND THEIR
MEASURE
Data and the ways they are measured come in various
types.
One of the most accepted typologies is Stevens'
Scales of Measurement.
It divides data into four types:
1) NOMINAL DATA
2) ORDINAL DATA
3) INTERVAL DATA
4) RATIO DATA
 NOMINAL DATA

Nominal means "name bearing." The nominal scale

places things into named categories.
These things are assigned to groups according to their
common or shared elements.
For example women who are different in many ways
could be assigned to the same category based on their
shared gender.
Important: The different categories are not ordered in
any "more or less" sense. They are just different from
each other.
 ORDINAL DATA

The ordinal scale places things in order. Ordinal data

show a particular item's position relative to other items,
such as "First, second, third, etc."
The ordinal scale doesn't specify the distance between
each item. It just puts them in order.
For example, in a playground foot race where no one has
a watch, the participants will not know their actual times.
They will only know who came in first, second, or third.
 INTERVAL DATA

The interval scale uses equal-sized units of measurement (points,

minutes, etc.) and, therefore, shows the distances, or intervals,
between subjects' performances.
In the foot race example, if the runners' classmates started
counting aloud after the first runner crossed the finish line, they
might discover that the second place finisher was only two counts
behind the winner while the third-place finisher was ten counts
behind.
Interval data show this difference in distances. Ordinal data would
not. It is important to remember that with interval (as opposed to
ratio) data, the intervals start from an arbitrary point, not
absolute zero.
Therefore, a student who scores a 60 on a grammar test could
not be said to know twice as much grammar as a student who
 RATIO DATA

The ratio scale is like the interval scale. It employs equal intervals.
However, the ratio scale begins at a true zero point.
That point represents an absolute lack of the quality being measured.
Because of this characteristic, additional mathematical functions are
possible with ratio data that are not possible with other types of data.
Usage note: Strictly speaking, the word data is actually a
plural. The singular form (which is rarely used) is datum.
Therefore, it is correct to say, for instance, "The data show"
or "The data are" rather than "The data shows" or "The data
is".
RESEARCH DATA FORMATS

Research data takes many different forms. Data may be

intangible as in measured numerical values found in a
spreadsheet or an object as in physical research
materials such samples of rocks, plants, or insects. Here
are some examples
 Documents of the
(text, MS formats
Word), that
 Sensor data can take:
readings
spreadsheets  Test responses
 Lab notebooks, field notebooks, 
Artifacts, specimens, physical
diaries samples
 Questionnaires, transcripts,  Models, algorithms, scripts
surveys
 Content analysis
 Codebooks
 Focus group recordings;
 Experimental data
interview notes
 Films, audio or video tapes/files
QUANTITATIVE VS. QUALITATIVE DATA

Quantitative data are used when a researcher is trying

to quantify a problem, or address the "what" or "how
many" aspects of a research question.
It is data that can either be counted or compared on a
numeric scale.
For example, it could be the number of first year students
at USIU -A, or the ratings on a scale of 1- 4 of the quality of
food served at Cafelata.
This data are usually gathered using instruments, such as
a questionnaire which includes a ratings scale or a
thermometer to collect weather data.
Statistical analysis software, such as SPSS, is often used to
Qualitative data describes qualities or characteristics.
It is collected using questionnaires, interviews, or
observation, and frequently appears in narrative form.
For example, it could be notes taken during a focus group
on the quality of the food at Cafeteria, or responses from
an open-ended questionnaire.
Qualitative data may be difficult to precisely measure and
analyze. The data may be in the form of descriptive words
that can be examined for patterns or meaning, sometimes
through the use of coding.
Coding allows the researcher to categorize qualitative
data to identify themes that correspond with the research
questions and to perform quantitative analysis.
SHOULD I USE QUALITATIVE OR
QUANTITATIVE DATA FOR MY
RESEARCH?
Research topics may be approached using either
quantitative or qualitative methods.
Choosing one method or the other depends on what
you believe would provide the best evidence for your
research objectives.
Researchers sometimes choose to incorporate both
qualitative and quantitative data in their research
since these methods provide different perspectives
on the topic.
TYPES OF RESEARCH DATA

Data may be grouped into four main types based on methods

for collection: observational, experimental, simulation, and
derived.
The type of research data you collect may affect the way you
manage that data.
For example, data that is hard or impossible to replace (e.g.
the recording of an event at a specific time and place)
requires extra backup procedures to reduce the risk of data
loss.
Or, if you will need to combine data points from different
sources, you will need to follow best practices to prevent data
corruption.
Observational Data
Observational data are captured through observation of
a behavior or activity.
It is collected using methods such as human
observation, open-ended surveys, or the use of an
instrument or sensor to monitor and record information
-- such as the use of sensors to observe noise levels at
the JKIA.
Because observational data are captured in real time, it
would be very difficult or impossible to re-create if lost.
Experimental Data

Experimental data are collected through active intervention by the

researcher to produce and measure change or to create difference
when a variable is altered.

Experimental data typically allows the researcher to determine a

causal relationship and is typically projectable to a larger
population.

This type of data are often reproducible, but it often can be

expensive to do so.
Simulation Data
Simulation data are generated by imitating the operation
of a real-world process or system over time using
computer test models.
For example, to predict weather conditions, economic
models, chemical reactions, or seismic activity.
This method is used to try to determine what would, or
could, happen under certain conditions.
The test model used is often as, or even more, important
than the data generated from the simulation.
Derived / Compiled Data

Derived data involves using existing data points, often from

different data sources, to create new data through some sort of
transformation, such as an arithmetic formula or aggregation.

For example, combining area and population data from the

Twin Cities metro area to create population density data.

While this type of data can usually be replaced if lost, it may be

very time-consuming (and possibly expensive) to do so.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DATA &
STATISTICS
While the terms ‘data’ and ‘statistics’ are often used
interchangeably, in scholarly research there is an important
distinction between them.

Data are individual pieces of factual information recorded and

used for the purpose of analysis.

It is the raw information from which statistics are created.

Statistics are the results of data analysis - its interpretation and

presentation.
In other words some computation has taken place that provides
some understanding of what the data means.

Statistics are often, though they don’t have to be, presented in

the form of a table, chart, or graph.

Both statistics and data are frequently used in scholarly

research. Statistics are often reported by government agencies –

For example, unemployment statistics or educational literacy

statistics.

Often these types of statistics are referred to as 'statistical data'.

Statistics are created once data are analyzed and
computations are done.

Statistics are often (although not always) presented in the

form of a table, chart, or graph.

The raw MTC data counting the numbers of riders who

boarded at each stop on each day was used to determine
an average number of riders boarding at each station
during each month.
DATA ANALYSIS SOFTWARE TOOLS

Atlas.ti
ATLAS.ti is one of the used tools for qualitative analysis of
large data.
This software comes equipped with sophisticated features
that aid organisation and management of large data.
Atlas.ti offers a large variety of media types including txt,
doc, docx, odt, pdf, wav, mp3, mp4, avi and a host of
others.
Atlas.ti also comes with a high level of coding and
visualization features making it easy to summarise large
data.
QDA Miner

QDA Miner is a qualitative analysis software that helps you

manage documents, and carry out common qualitative
analysis tasks.

Some features include storing and editing of documents in

Rich Text format, organization of project file by cases,
importation from various file format such as Excel and
SPSS, document conversion, backup and restore of existing
projects files.
TAMS Anazyler

Text Analysis Markup System aka TAMS is a system for

identifying themes in texts and was designed for use in
ethnographic and discourse research.

The TAMS Analyzer is an open source software that uses TAMS

to enable a researcher assign codes to a text.

The researcher can also analyze, extract, and save coded

information. Some features include transcription, coding,
analysis, reporting of data and file management.
Dedoose

Dedoose is a software built 'By Researchers for Researchers'.

It is a web application that aids mixed methods research.

Dedoose was developed by academics from UCLA.

This analysis software is designed, developed, and operated by

SocioCultural Research Consultants (SCRC).

Dedoose is best known for integration of qualitative and quantitative

data analysis methods, and an interactive data visualization feature.
NVivo

NVivo is another software used for both qualitative and mixed-

methods research.

NVivo is especially used for analysis of unstructured text, audio,

video, and image data from interviews, focus groups, surveys,
social media, and journal articles. NVivo is a product of QSR
International.

Some features include analysis and organization of unstructured

text, audio, video, or image data, playback ability for audio and
video files, for easy transcription and even social media capture.
MAXQDA
MAXQDA is an encompassing software designed to aid
and support qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods
research projects. It allows you to import, organize,
analyze, visualize and publish all forms of data as long as
they can be collected electronically.
Some of the data formats MAXQDA supports include
interviews, surveys, (PDF) documents, tables (Excel /
SPSS), bibliographic data, pictures, videos, web pages
and even tweets.
This software has a wide range of features that allows for
transcription and even inferential statistical analysis.
MAXQDA is available in over 12 languages.
HyperRESEARCH
HyperRESEARCH is another software that gives a
researcher the needed flexibility for qualitative data
analysis. It comes equipped with abilities like with
keyword coding, mind-mapping and theory building.
HyperRESEARCH allows for coding and retrieval of source
material and general analysis of your data.
HyperRESEARCH has a wide range of media including
text, graphics, audio, and video sources.
With HyperRESEARCH, you can analyze your data set,
visualize your text data as a word cloud and summarize
statistical data about code use and frequency throughout
your study. You can also use the memo feature for better
organization.
AQUAD

AQUAD 7 is a free open-source software that allows for the

analysis of all kinds of qualitative data.

This quantitative analysis tool allows for combination of

qualitative and quantitative analysis.

Using textual sequence-analysis, a researcher can also

reconstruct case structures based on strict hypothesis testing.

AQUAD supports data types like texts, audio, video and images.
You can also use your own written R scripts in this software.
Mendeley
Mendeley is a qualitative analysis software that is
available as a desktop application and website.
This tool helps a researcher manage, share and discover
both content and contacts in research.
Some features of the Mendeley software include
automatic extraction of document details, management
of research papers, sharing and synchronisation of
research library, online backup of research library,
detailed statistics and even a recommendation engine for
papers that might be of interest.
Transana
Transana is another great software for qualitative analysis
of text, still image, audio, and video data.
Transana offers more flexibility by letting the researcher
work with the data the way they want, using their
qualitative methodology of choice.
Transana allows for importation of text documents,
analysis and coding of text, importation of media files,
video and audio analysis, graphical and text based report.
Transana also allows for research collaboration through its
multi-user interface.
SPSS
SPSS is the name of a series of software packages used for
data analysis. Its main selling point is that it allows researchers
to analyze data without using advanced statistical analysis
skills.
The software favors simplicity over a more comprehensive --
and complicated -- range of features and tools.
Stata
Stata is a powerful statistical software that enables users to
analyze, manage, and produce graphical visualizations of data.
It is primarily used by researchers in the fields of economics,
biomedicine, and political science to examine data patterns.
LET'S REVIEW

1.Research data can take many forms depending on the academic area
in which the research is being conducted. Using the definition that
we've provided, which of the following would NOT qualify as an
example of research data?

a) Photographs taken each year in mid-June of a prairie landscape documenting

the changes that have occurred over a twenty year period.
b) A series of case studies examining eight unique musical works in an effort to
understand the impact of technology on the creative process of composing
music.
c) Audio recordings of campaign speeches from presidential candidates in 2012.
d) Dried fungal specimens native to the Nairobi River valley.
e) None of the above are examples of research data.
What do you think?
2. Data typically falls within one of two categories: qualitative or
quantitative. Which of the following are examples of quantitative
data?

a) Hourly air temperatures in Fahrenheit recorded

at Macalester's Ordway Field Station for the years 2010 - 2015.
b) Photographs recording the starting stances of Olympic runners in the
2016 Olympic Games.
c) Listing of gross domestic product, unemployment rates, consumer price
index numbers and industrial production of European Union member
states.
d) Tally of the number of cars that passed through the intersection of Grand
and Snelling Avenues last Friday between 7:00 a.m. and 7:00 p.m.
e) Letters and diaries written by KDF Infantry Regiment veterans who fought
at Kisimaiyu during the Somalia War.
What do you think?
3. Research data are often grouped into one of four
major types based on the methodology used to
collect it. What data type is generated by imitating
the operation of a real-world process or system
over time using computer test models?

a) Observational data.
b) Experimental data.
c) Simulation data.
d) Derived / compiled data.

What do you think?

 SUGGESTED ANSWERS
1. E is the correct answer. Research data are any information collected,
stored, and processed to produce and validate original research results -
that is, to prove or disprove a theory, to bolster claims made in the
research being conducted, or to further the knowledge around a specific
topic or problem. All of the examples meet that definition.
2. A (hourly air temperatures), C (economic data from European Union
member states) and D (numbers of cars going through intersection) are all
examples of quantitative data. Remember that quantitative data allows
the researcher to quantify a problem. Each of these data examples counts
something or can be compared on a numeric scale. They can be fed into
statistical analysis software to help the researcher better understand the
message the data tells without the need for the researcher to do coding or
interpret the data.
3. C (simulation data) imitates the operation of a real-world process or
system through modeling. An example of this would be to use modeling to
forecast weather conditions or to anticipate future seismic activity based
on past or current seismic activity.
END Thank you