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Lecture 5

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16 views13 pages

Lecture 5

ai

Uploaded by

mdhasemaliic
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Lecture-5

Knowledge Representation

Professor Dr.
Dipankar Das
Department of ICE, RU
Knowledge Representation
• Propositional Logic (PL)
• First-Order Predicate Logic (FOPL)
Logic
• Logic is a knowledge representation language
for many AI problems
• Propositional logic is the simple foundation
and fine for some AI problems
• First-Order Predicate Logic (FOPL) is much
more expressive as a KR language and more
commonly used in AI
Propositional Logic
• Proposition
– Propositions are elementary atomic sentences.
– A declarative statement that may be either true or false.
– Dhaka is the Capital of Bangladesh True
– 2+4 = 9 False
– It is raining. ?
– My car is painted silver?
– John and Sue have live children?
– Snow is white?
– People live on the moon?
Syntax of PL
• Syntax:
• This syntax governs the combination of basic building
blocks such as propositions and logical connectives.
• Compound propositions are formed from atomic
formulas using the logical connective
– Propositional symbols: p, q,... (atomic sentences)
• Wrapping parentheses: ( … )
• Sentences are combined by connectives:
 and [conjunction]
 or [disjunction]
 implies [implication / conditional]
 is equivalent [biconditional]
 not [negation]
• Literal: atomic sentence or negated atomic sentence
Syntax of PL
• Formulas and Well Formed Formulas are sentences
• T and F are formulas.
• It P and Q are formulas, the following are formulas:
(P)
(P  Q)
(P V Q)
(P  Q)
(P  Q)
• An example of a compound formula is:
– ((P  ( Q V R)  (Q  S))
Semantics of PL
• The semantics or meaning of a sentence is just the value
true or false: that is. it is an assignment of a truth value
to the sentence
• An interpretation for a sentence or group of sentences is an
assignment of a truth value to each propositional symbol.
• As an example, consider the statements P and Q.
– One interpretation I1 assign true to P and false to Q.
– A different interpretation I2 assigns true to P and true to Q.
– Clearly. there are four distinct interpretations for this sentence.
• Once an interpretation has been given, its truth value can he
determined.
• This is done by repeated application of semantic rule
Semantics of PL
• Semantic Rules

Rule Number True Statement False Statement


1 t f
2 ~f ~t
3 t  t’ fa
4 ta af
5 at f  f’
6 at tf
7 fa t f
8 t  t’ f t
9 ff
PL
• Properties of Statements
– Satisfiable: A statement is satisfiable if there is some
interpretation for which it is true.
– Contradiction: A sentence is contradictory (unsatisfiable)
if there is no interpretation for which it is true.
– Valid: A sentence is valid if it is true for every
interpretation. Valid sentences are also called tautologies.
– Equivalence: Two sentences are equivalent if they have
the same truth value under every interpretation
– Logical consequences: A sentence is a logical
consequence of another if it is satisfied by all
interpretations which satisfy the first.
Advantages and Limitations of PL
• Advantages
– Simple KR language sufficient for some problems
– It is foundation for higher logics (e.g., FOPL)
– Reasoning is decidable, though NP complete, and efficient
techniques exist for many problems
• Disadvantages
– Not expressive enough for most problems
– Can’t directly talk about properties of individuals or relations between
individuals
– Generalizations, patterns, regularities can’t easily be represented
• First-Order Logic (FOL) is expressive enough to represent this kind of
information using relations, variables and quantifiers, e.g.,
• Every elephant is gray:  x (elephant(x) → gray(x))
• There is a white alligator:  x (alligator(X) ^ white(X))
Limitations of PL: Example
• Consider the problem of representing the following information:
– Every person is mortal.
– Joy is a person.
– Joy is mortal.
• How can these sentences be represented so that we can infer the
third sentence from the first two?
• In PL we have to create propositional symbols like following:
p = “person”; q = “mortal”; r = “Joy”
• The above 3 sentences are represented as:
p  q; r  p; r  q
• The 3rd sentence is entailed by the first two, but we need an explicit
symbol, r, to represent an individual, Joy
• Representing other individuals requires introducing separate symbols for
each
• To represent the fact that all individuals who are “people” are also “mortal”
First-Order Predicate Logic (FOPL)
• Predicate is a symbol which represents a property or a
relation
• "Man is mortal" can be transformed into the
propositional form ∀x: P(x) where P(x) is the predicate
which denotes x is mortal
• First-OrderPredicate Logic (FOPI) or Predicate Calculus has
assumed one of the most important roles in Al for the
representation of knowledge.
• FOPL is flexible enough to permit the accurate
representation of natural language reasonably well.
• FOPL is widely accepted by workers in the Al field as one of
the most useful representation methods
Next Class
• Logical Representation of Knowledge
– Propositional Logic
– First-Order Predicate Logic

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