Ambo University Woliso Campus

School of Business and Economics

System Analysis and Design

Chapter 5: System Implementation

By Million L.
2021 G.C
 Chapter Five
Systems Implementation
• Chapter’s point focus:
– System Support, maintenance, enhancement,
reengineering, and design recovery
– System testing techniques
– Systems and user documentation
– User training guidelines
– Developing installation plans
– Conversion techniques
– Types and procedures of system maintenance
– Post installation follow-up
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 System Support
• System support is a general term for providing assistance in
matters related to computer and information technology.
• System support is provided by system support specialists.
• System support specialists troubleshoot, install and fix
computer system hardware and software of all types.
• Many businesses and corporations hire system support
specialists to work full time during all shifts, including
evenings and weekends.
• System support specialists work independently with little
supervision, but function as part of a larger IT team.
• Often, system support specialists are required to travel to on-
site locations to fix various hardware and software problems
and perform installations and updates.

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System Support Specialist Duties and Responsibilities
• The duties and tasks performed by system support specialists
vary depending on the software and hardware used by the
hiring company. These core job tasks, however, are common
regardless of these variables:
– Provide Tech Support: answer requests for software and
hardware support throughout the company and its various
branch locations.
– Perform Maintenance: perform preventative maintenance
on hardware systems and network equipment to prevent
errors.
– Troubleshoot Problems:
• troubleshoot hardware problems and find fixes for them.
• test software programs for defects and bugs.

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System Support Specialist Duties and Responsibilities
• Install and Upgrade Software and Hardware:
– install new software and connect new hardware to
existing networks.
– upgrade software packages and outdated hardware,
which can include adding memory, replacing drives, and
installing accessories.
• Repair and Install Cables
• Back Up Data: to prevent loss during system equipment
replacement procedures.
• Remove Viruses and Malware
• Train Staff members: enable staff members to use various
software programs and pieces of hardware, such as
network printers.
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 System Support Specialist Skills and Qualifications
• System support specialists should have strong computer
skills and extensive hardware and software knowledge to
perform repairs and installations, and to teach others
how to properly use equipment.
• When hiring these specialists, employers look for individuals
who display the following skills:
– Time management: helps system support specialists to
prioritize support tasks and complete job duties efficiently
– Computer skills: excellent computer skills are essential for
system support specialists, who work with multiple types
of software and hardware

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 System Support Specialist Skills and Qualifications
• When hiring these specialists, employers look for individuals
who display the following skills:
– Communication skills: system support specialists need
excellent communication skills:
• to listen to problems reported by users and
• to relay information regarding the proper use of
software and equipment
– Problem-solving skills: system support specialists diagnose
and repair problems with software and hardware, which
requires strong problem-solving skills
– Physical fitness: system support specialists lift and move
pieces of equipment, and crawl, bend and squat to install
cables and diagnose hardware issues, all of which require
physical fitness
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 System testing techniques
• Systems testing is an expensive but critical process.
• Systems testing is performed to prove that there are no
errors in a program.
– However, this is virtually impossible, since analysts
cannot prove that software is free and clear of errors.
• System testing is the process of executing a program
with clear intention of finding errors that is, making the
program fail.
– A successful test is one that finds an error.
• System testing is done through the use of test cases.
– A test case is a set of data that the system will
process as normal input.
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 System testing techniques(cont’d…)
• Code Testing strategy: examines the logic of the program.
– the analyst develops test cases that result in executing
every instruction in the program or module and prepared
test set is used to test every path through the program.
• A path is a specific combination of conditions that is
handled by the program.
• On the surface, code testing seems to be an ideal method for
testing software.
– However, the rationale that all software errors can be
uncovered by checking every path in a program is faulty.
– Financial considerations and time limitations alone will
usually prevent executing every path through a program,
since there may be several thousand.
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 System testing techniques(cont’d…)
• Code testing: even if code testing can be performed
in its entirety, it does not guarantee against software
failures.
– It does not indicate whether the code meets its
specifications nor does it determine whether all
aspects are even implemented.
– It does not check the range of data that the
program will accept, even though, when software
failures occur in actual use because of users
submitted data outside of expected ranges.
• Code testing focuses on the way software is expected
to be used.
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 System testing techniques(cont’d…)
• Specification testing: to perform specification testing,
the analyst examines the specifications stating what
the program should do and how it should perform
under various conditions.
– It is used to determine whether the program
performs according to its specified requirements.
• Specification testing treats the program as if it were a
black box.
– the analyst does not look into the program and is
not concerned about whether path through the
program is tested.

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 Levels of system testing
• Systems are not designed as entire systems nor are
they tested as single systems.
– We need to perform both unit and integration
testing.
• Unit testing: the software units in a system are the
modules and routines that are assembled and
integrated to perform a specific function.
– Unit testing focuses on the modules, independently of
one another, to locate errors.
– The test cases needed for unit testing should exercise
each condition and option.

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 Levels of system testing(cont’d…)
• Integration testing: it does not test the whole software but
rather the integration of each module in the system.
– It also tests to find inconsistencies between the system and its
original objective, current specifications, and systems
documentation.
– Its primary concern is the compatibility of individual modules.
• For example, one module may expect the data item for
customer identification number to be a numeric field, while
other modules expect it to be a character data item. The
system itself may not report this as an error, but the output
may show unexpected results.
• Analysts are trying to find areas where modules have been
designed with different specifications for data length, data
type and data element name.
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 Special systems testing
• There are other tests that are in special category,
since they do not focus on the normal running of the
system.
• Six tests are essential:
– Peak Load Testing
– Storage Testing
– Performance Time Testing
– Recovery Testing
– Procedure Testing
– Human factors Testing

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 Special systems testing (cont’d…)
• Peak load testing: there are critical times in many
systems, particularly online systems.
– For example, in a banking system, analysts want to
know what will happen if all teller sign on at their
terminals at the same time before the start of the
business day.
• The only sure way to find out is to test for it.
– The same situations can arise when tellers’ sign out
during lunch periods and at the end of the day, so
testing is looking at real situations.

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 Special systems testing (cont’d…)
• Storage testing: analysts specify a capacity for the
system when it is designed and constructed.
– Capacities are measured in terms of the number of
records that a disk will handle or a file can contain.
• Storage testing often requires entering data until the
capacity is reached.
• Many systems are never perform storage testing:
users find out too late.
– The claims “there is not enough storage capacity for
transactions and master file records” that made
during installation are not true.

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 Special systems testing (cont’d…)
• Performance time testing: when analysts are
developing a design, their concerns are more on
reports, inputs, files and processing sequences than
on performance time.
– The response time of the system is identified only
after it has been installed and loaded up with data.
• Performance time testing is conducted preceding to
implementation to determine:
– how long it takes to receive a response to an inquiry,
– make a backup copy of a file, or
– send a transmission and receive a response.

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 Special systems testing (cont’d…)
• Recovery testing: analysts must always assume that
the system will fail and data will be damaged or lost.
– Even though plans and procedures are written to
cover these situations, they also must be tested.
– Recovery testing is performed by creating a data
loss event where the users are forced to reload
and recover form a backup copy.

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 Special systems testing (cont’d…)
• Procedure testing: documentation and run manuals
tell the user how to perform certain functions.
• Procedure testing are performed quite easily by
asking the user to follow documentation and run
manuals exactly through a series of events.
• Often descriptions of the details do not get into the
documentation.
– This type of testing not only shows where they are
needed but also where they are wrong, that is, where
actions suggested in the documentation do not
match those that must actually be taken to make the
system.
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 Special systems testing (cont’d…)
• Human factors testing: the users can do anything, if
the analyst has not given them some message on the
screen to indicate that their request has been
received, that it is being processed, and that there
will be a short delay.
• Human factors testing is all about finding answers to
questions about how people will react to the system
in ways not anticipated.
– It is the responsibility of the analyst to anticipate
questions that will arise in the minds of the users
as they interact with the system.

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 Systems and user documentation
• System documentation: represents documents that
describe the system itself and its parts.
– It helps engineers and stakeholders understand the
underlying technology.
– It includes requirements documents, design
decisions, architecture descriptions, program source
code and the likes
• User documentation: covers manuals that are
mainly prepared for end users
and system administrators.
– It includes tutorials, user guides, troubleshooting
manuals, installation and reference manuals.
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 Training
• Putting a new system into operation is usually complicated
by the fact that there is an older system already in
operation.
• The analyst has to deal with changing from something
familiar to something new and different.
– the concern for simultaneous conversion and
implementation is usual.
• New system brings in new equipment.
– It may represent a change from manual to automated
operation or a change in the level of available machine
capacity.
• A new method may drastically affect people’s lives by
changing their work methods, work style and relationships
with other employees.
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 Training(cont’d…)
• One of the most effective ways of dealing with the
potential impact of these changes is to provide a well-
designed program of training.
• The training program should:
– Inform the user about the system in general
– Inform the user about specific operation of the system
– Give the user some practice in operating the system
– Provide opportunity for user feed back.
– Provide ample opportunity to adjust to the new system.
– Provide answers to the queries raised by the employees.
– Generate a feeling among employees that the new
system is “their” system.
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 Training(cont’d…)
• Even well designed and technically elegant systems
can succeed or fail because of the way they are
operated and used.
– The quality of training received by the personnel
involved with the system in various dimensions
improves the success of the system.
• Those whose will be associated with the system must
know in detail:
– what their roles will be,
– how they can use the system, and
– what the system will or will not do.
• Both systems operators and users need training.
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 Training systems operators
• Operators are responsible for keeping the equipment running
as well as for providing the necessary support service.
– Their training must ensure that they are able to handle all
possible operations, both routine and extraordinary.
– Operator training must also involve the data entry
personnel.
• The operators training should include:
– how to turn the equipment on and use it
– how to power it down and
– a knowledge of what constitutes normal operation and
use.
• The operators should also be instructed in what common
malfunctions may occur, how to recognize them, and what
steps to take when they arise.

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 Training systems operators(cont’d…)
• Operators should be given both:
– A troubleshooting lists that identifies possible
problems and preparations for them
– The names and telephone numbers of individuals to
contact when unexpected or unusual problems arise.
• Training also involves working through the sequence of
activities needed to use a new system on an ongoing
basis.
– It allow the computer operators to become familiar
with the actions they need to take and when these
actions must occur.

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 User training
• User training may involve equipment use.
• User training must also instruct individuals in
troubleshooting the system, determining whether a
problem that arise is caused by the equipment or
software or by something they have done in using the
system.
• Training in data coding emphasizes the methods to be
followed in capturing data form transactions or preparing
data needed for decision support activities.
– Users must be trained so that they know: how to store
new transactions, how to change previously stored
data, how to find specific records or getting responses
to questions and how to delete records.
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 Training guidelines(cont’d…)
• Establishing measurable objectives

• Using appropriate training methods

• Selecting suitable training sites

• Employing understandable training materials

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 Training methods
• The training of operators and users can be achieved
in several different ways.
• Training activities may take place at vendor locations;
at rented facilities, for example, in hotels or on
university campuses; or in house at the employee’s
organizations.
• The methods and content of the training often vary,
depending on the source and location of the training.
– Vendor and In-service training
– In-house training

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 Vendor and In-service training
• The best source of training on equipment is the
vendor supplying the equipment.
– Most vendors offer extensive educational
programs as part of their services.
– Many instances training is free.
– Must be offered by experienced trainers.
– Must cover all aspects of using the equipment,
from how to turn it on and off, to the storage and
removal of data, to handling malfunctions.
– It includes use the system in the presence of the
trainers.
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 In-house Training
• In-house training: involves using a company's own
expertise and resources.

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 Developing installation plans
• Planning for installation may begin as early as the
analysis of the organization supported by the system.
• Some installation activities, such as buying new
hardware, remodeling facilities, validating data to be
transferred to the new system, and collecting new
data to be loaded into the new system, must be done
before the software installation can occur.
• Often the project team leader is responsible for
anticipating all installation tasks and assigns
responsibility for each to different analysts.

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 Developing installation plans(cont’d…)
• Each installation process involves getting workers to
change the way they work.
– It is about changing how people do their jobs and
how the organization operates.
– As such, installation should be looked at not as
simply installing a new computer system, but as an
organizational change process.

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 Conversion techniques
• Conversion is the process of changing form the old
system to the new one.
• There are four methods of handling a systems
conversion.
– Each method has the opportunities that it offers and
problems that it may cause.
– However, some situations command the use of one
method over others, even though other methods may be
more beneficial.
• Systems conversion should be accomplished as quickly
as possible.
– Long conversion periods increase the possible frustration
and difficulty of the task for all persons involved, including
both analysts and users.
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 Conversion techniques: Parallel systems
• The most secure method of converting from an old
to new system is to run both systems in parallel.
– users continue to operate the old system in the
familiarized manner but they also begin using the
new system.
• This method is the safest conversion approach.
– it guarantees that the organization can still fall back
to the old system without loss of time, profits, or
service in case of problems such as errors in
processing or inability to handle certain types of
transactions arise in using the new system.

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 Conversion techniques: Parallel systems
• The disadvantages of the parallel systems approach are
significant.
– the system costs double, since there are two sets of
systems costs. In some instances it is necessary to hire
temporary personnel to assist in operating both
systems in parallel.
– users know they can fall back to the old ways may be a
disadvantage if there is potential resistance to the
change or if users prefer the old system.
• the new system may not get a fair trail.
• The parallel method of systems conversion offers the most
secure implementation plan if things go wrong, but the
costs and risks to a fair trail cannot be ignored.
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 Conversion techniques: Direct cutover
• The direct cutover method converts the old to the new
system shortly, sometimes over a weekend or even
overnight.
– The old system is used until a planned conversion day.
– There are no parallel activities.
– It forces all users to make the new system work; they
do not have any other method to fall back on.
• The advantage of not having a fallback system can turn
into a disadvantage, if serious problems arise with the
new system.
– In some instances, organizations even stop operations
when problems arise so that difficulties can be
corrected.
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 Conversion techniques: Direct cutover
• Disadvantages:
– If users know that a system was once halted
because of difficulties, they may not be fully
confident that the system will be reliable, even if
analysts tell them that the problems have been
corrected.
– If error occurred, the time it takes to redo work
that was stopped because of the conversion can
be both lengthy and costly, and time lost can never
be recaptured.

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 Conversion techniques: Pilot Approach
• The pilot approach is often preferred, when new
systems also involve new techniques or extreme
changes in organization performance.
• In this method, a working version of the system is
implemented in one part of the organization, such as
a single work area or department.
• The users in this area typically know that they are
piloting a new system and that changes can be made
to improve the system.
• When the system is deemed complete, it is installed
throughout the organization, either all at once (direct
cutover method) or gradually (phase-in method).
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 Conversion techniques: Pilot Approach
• Pilot Approach has the advantage of providing a
sound demonstrating ground before full
implementation.
– However, if the implementation is not properly
handled, users may feel that the difficulties they
experienced for two or three weeks may in fact
not be gone and they may complain the system.

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 Conversion techniques: Phase-In Method
• The phase- in method is used when it is not possible
to install a new system throughout an organization
all at once.
– The conversion of files, training of personnel, or
arrival of equipment may force the staging of the
implementation over a period of time.
– It may take time ranging form weeks to months.
– It allows some users will begin to take advantage
of the new system before others.
• Long phase in period create difficulties for analysts.
– if there are problems in the early phases of
implementation, word of difficulties will spread
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 Conversion Plan
• The conversion plan includes a description of all the activities
that must occur to implement the new system and put it into
operation.
– It identifies the persons responsible for each activity and includes a
timetable indicating when each activity will occur.
• When the conversion is being planned, analysts should
assemble a lit of all tasks, including the following:
– List all files for conversion.
– Identify all data required to build new files during conversion.
– List all new documents and procedures that go into use during
conversion.
– Identify all controls to be used during conversion. Establish procedures
for crosschecking the old and new systems. Determine how team
members will know if something has not been completed properly.
– Assign responsibility for each activity.
– Verify conversion schedules.

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 Conversion Plan (cont’d…)
• The conversion plan should anticipate possible
problems and ways to deal with them.
• Among the most frequently occurring problems are:
– missing documents
– different data formats between current and new files
– errors in data translation
– missing data or lost files and
– situations that were unnoticed during systems
development.
• Conversion timing is challenging, since there are so
many aspects of the conversion, ranging from the
installation of equipment to the ordering of forms
and supplies.
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Types and procedures of system maintenance
• Systems are continually evolving, but will never attain
maturity because their running environments are
dynamic and highly unpredictable.
– Therefore, routine maintenance is critical for the
improvement of information systems through constant
monitoring, evaluations, and modifications.
• It is wrong to assume that software systems should
run as long as the hardware is functional.
– Maintenance is used to keep systems valuable and
running effectively.

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 Types of system maintenance
• There are four types of software maintenance:
– Corrective Software Maintenance
– Adaptive Software Maintenance
– Perfective Software Maintenance
– Preventive Software Maintenance

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 Corrective maintenance
• Corrective maintenance: involves a software change seeking to fix
bugs preventing the software from rendering expected services.
– Used to repair most performance and processing problems that
result from wrong assumptions or faulty designs.
• Example 1: Upgrade of software due to its inadequacy. This is
done after releasing software with a bug that affect end users.
– If the end-user was not affected by the software error, then the
maintenance action is not correctional but instead adaptive or
preventive.
– Corrective action seeks to fix problems that are directly and
exclusively affecting end users.
• Example 2: Repair following a software failure. Correctional
action may entail a reset to default settings or code replacement
with a standby system as the faulty one undergoes debugging.

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 Adaptive maintenance
• When software functions are changed, adaptive support
is necessary to ensure the satisfaction of user needs.
– It modify system to environmental changes.
• Some of the critical changes that may necessitate
adaptive maintenance include:
– alterations of organizational procedures
– change in forms
– change in security needs
– updates in regulatory policies and goals.
– External changes, regulations, markets and
technology.

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 Perfective maintenance
• The form of maintenance involves the implementation of
changed or new user requirements.
– It is mainly interested in improving a software system that is
already working.
• Perfective maintenance is used for:
– the enhancement of functions for increased performance even
when errors do not necessarily prompt changes.
– improving code and system efficiency
• The maintenance process focuses on speed, user interface,
optimization and improvements on usability.
• Successful organizations perform perfective maintenance by
carefully considering customer feedback.
– Example: Handling errors better, instead of displaying cryptic error
codes, perfective maintenance may focus on displaying warnings
alongside details on what the user should do next.
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 Preventive maintenance
• It is the maintenance designed to prevent potential
future issues that are not necessarily guaranteed.
– It is primarily linked to an event that may or may not
occur in the future.
• Preventive maintenance is different from adaptive
maintenance in that it is based on unpredictable
assumptions.
– It involves introducing new software utility or modifying
an existing one to suit resulting performance needs.
– It is responsive to various changes occurring within and
outside organizations.
• Preventive action is reliable in simplifying complex
processes which may otherwise pose unexpected risks.
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 Preventive maintenance(cont’d…)
• Example 1: Software security concerns, maintaining
operating systems and other third party applications
up to date to prevent possible security bridges.
• It is also recommended to keep software source codes
authentic to prevent them from malicious access, which
may pose a severe security incident.
• Example 2: Recommended maintenance, includes
updates to the terms and conditions of a software
policy to make sure that all risks are minimized
sufficiently.
– The management plays a crucial role in lowering the
impact of legal enforcements.

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 Cost of Maintenance
• Information systems maintenance costs are a
significant expenditure.
– For some organizations, as much 60–80 percent of
their information systems budget is allocated to
maintenance activities.

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 Post installation follow-up
• The follow-up phase is often neglected.

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Thank you!

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