Business Informatics

Academic Year 2024/2025

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 Syllabus
1. INFORMATICS
1.1 Definition of the Term Information
1.2 Cybernetics
1.3 Theory of Systems
1.4 Providing Information to the Manager
1.5 System Analysis and Synthesis
1.6 Algorithm and Algorithmization
1.7 Data and Data Base
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 Syllabus
• 2. COMPUTER SYSTEM
• 3. COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE
• 4. INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
• 5. SOFTWARE
• 6. DATABASE TECHNOLOGY
• 7. PERIPHERAL EQUIPMENT AND
DATA CARRIERS
• 8. SECURITY OF INFORMATION
TECHNOLOGIES
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 Informatics is a scientific and engineering
discipline dealing with all aspects of the processing,
creation, analysis and functioning of systems,
processing their information, their application in various
areas of human activities, while using modern means
of computer technology.
The term INFORMATICS is a combination of two
French words: infor-mation (information) and auto-
matique (automation). Thus, the practical side of
informatics results in a precedural functioning of
important management systems usually having self-
regulating aspects.
However, the creation and performance of these
sytems requires a systematic approach, a system
engineering principles and the application of system
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sciences.
1.1 Definition of the Term Information

Originally, the term information meant

management in general.
Gradually, with the development of
cybernetics and the general theory of systems, this
term has become more specific in the given areas,
although, its original meaning was preserved, and
it started to be used in a more specific meaning
for the designation of messages, the knowledge of
the observer regarding the system and the
environment of its functioning.
In addition to the term information, we also
come across the term data. They must be rigidly
distinguished and their substance must be defined.5
 Data consists of numeric, alphabetical or
alphabetical-numerical symbols. Usually, they have an
internal meaning, scope (minimum and maximum
number of spots) and designation determined in
advance.
In practice, isolated datum without defining its
features or connection with other data cannot usually be
used. In business, we come across the term data most
frequently in conjunction with the term input data, i.e.,
data from a particular area of business (e.g., data on the
amount of material in stock, capacity of production line,
technical and management standards).
Data is a broader term than information; data may
but do not have to include information content for the
recipient. 6
 Information is purposefully arranged data
which, with respect to their order, internal and
external logic and determined links, create the
basis for the information system needs; usually
they are arranged in files, tables, lists, etc.
In general, we process data and create
information through computer technology.
Thus, information reduces the level of
entropy (lack of knowledge) of the recipient.

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 1.1.1 Characteristics of Information

Information theory (the science of the

measurement, coding, transmission, storing, processing
and use of information) uses an extensive mathematics
apparatus, e.g., probability theory, mathematical
statistics, linear algebraic statistics, linear algebra,
graph theory, game theory, etc. for its theoretical
research.
The part of the information theory which deals
with the communications process is most important for
practical use. Information theory, as an independent
science discipline, was developed by R. V. L. Hartley and
C. E. Shannon.

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 Information theory deals with the searchfor
the quantitative rate of information and abstracts
from the content.
In order to define what information actually
is, we must deal with the content if we want to
distinguish the message from information.
A message is any communication of objective
reality which may, but does not have to be of an
information nature. Opposed to this, information is
communcation which brings a heretofore unknown
piece of knowledge.

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INFORMATION  datum about the real
environment, its state and ongoing
processes in it which reduces the lack of
knowledge of the recipient about the
environment and modifies the variety of its
behavior.
MESSAGE  any communication, interaction
between objects and their surroundings
consisting of signs.
SIGNAL  material instrument for the
transmission of non-material message.
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 Information has the following
characteristics:
 it is of a non-material nature;
 it is always connected with a physical
carrier, signal;
 it must be connected with processes which
are being performed;
 it must be measurable in order to have the
rquired meaning;
 it is communication through which the
recipient modifies the variety of behavior.
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 Information quantification – any
communication expressed in symbols. Symbols
constitute the building blocks of messages.
Symbols may include letters, figures,
pictograms and graphic signs, mathematical marks
and symbols, electric impulses, indicated or or non-
indicated spots on different media, fleshes of light
etc.
A set of used symbols constitute an alphabet.
A message is a combination of symbols from
alphabet arranged according to certain rules in
order to be comprehensible. The use of symbols
beyond the alphabet is inadmissable.
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 The amount of information (H) is proportional to the
number of the used symbols (k is a constant of
proportionality):
H = km
If we have n alphabetical symbols and the length of a
message is m, we can create nm different messages and the
amount of information is :
H = log2 nm = m log2 n
If we replace the expression nm with the general figure
k, we will get the expression for the amount of information
obtained when one of the potential events occurred:
H = log2 k

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 In 1928, R. V. L. Hartley defined a basic unit of
information - 1 bit, through this relation:
1 bit = log2 2

1 bit as a unit of the amount of information

represents the information that one symbol (m=1)
which can acquire the value of 0 or 1 (n=2) it has just
acquired a certain value with the same probability.

The name of the unit of information bit is an abbreviation of the

English term binary digit. 14
 Information Entropy
In information theory, entropy is a measure of
the arrangement or disorder of the system and also
the measure of information. The use of the formula for
entropy to the measurement of the amount of
information means that the amount of information
corresponds to the difference between the awareness
prior to and after receiving the information :
I = H 0 - H1
I – level of awareness
H – amount of information

ENTROPY  level of disorder and level of

awareness. 15
 Level of Knowingness and Redundancy

The information content of the received message is the

difference between the uncertainty of the behavior of the
message recipient prior to the delivery of the message (H0) and
the change of the uncertainty of the behavior after its delivery
(H1). The difference is designed as I and is called the level of
awareness. We can use the following relation to express the level
of awareness, :
Hmax – H1
Irel= , Hmax

where:
Irel – means awareness, the basis of which is Hmax
Hmax – means maximum entropy where all phenomena occur with
the same probability, i.e., pi=1/n 16
 The redundancy of the communicated message or
information is defined through the following relation:
R=1–h.

h – relative entropy
H
h=
Hmax
R - redundancy

REDUNDANCY  level of the relative redundancy of

information.
LEVEL OF AWARENESS  difference between the
awareness prior to and after the delivery of
message.
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 1.1.1 Communication Process

A communication process is a process of the

transmission of a message (information). It occurs
between people, between a person and
a computer system and between the computer
and communcations systems. The sequence of
the transmission of messages is called the flow of
information.

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 General Scheme of the Communcation Process
CCH
SI REC
CG TR RE DC ZI

ZP

Messages (information) are(is) generated in the source of

information (SI). The code generator (CG) is a device whose task is to
transform (encode) the transmitted messages to a signal, st.z. in
such form to enable its transmission through the communication
channel (CCH). The transmitter (TR) transmits the encoded message
by the use of a signal through the communication channel and the
receiver (REC) receives it. The reverse decoding of the message is
performed in the decoder (DC) into such form to be comprehensible
for the recipient (REC).
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A signal is a physical, material carrier of the
message in the system transmitter - receiver . Its
creation is conditioned on any event, activity or
change.

COMMUNICATION CHANNEL  equipment, device for

the performance of the communication process.
DISTORTED INFORMATION  disorder occuring
upon the transmission of the message through
the communication channel and distorting the
transmitted message.

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 Basic Characteristics of Information

Each piece of information must be considered on

three levels :
 The semantic (content) level – i.e., in terms of the
meaningful content and correct interpretation of
information:
 it refers to the content of information in relation
to reality, where the reality is a model and the
information is a reflection
 it refers to the features which express the content
quality of the reflection in relation to the model;

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 Basic Characteristics of Information

 the pragmatic (user) level – i.e., in terms of the

achievement of intentions:
 it refers to the usefulness of information in
relation to the objective for which it was
obtained and will be used
 the syntax (composition) level – i.e., in terms of
material-energy, signs, technology or in terms of
the manner of the information transmission
 it refers to the manner of the expression of
information

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 Economic Information

Economic information consists of elements of

an information subsystem of an economic system (or
social- economic system).
Links are expressed by flows of information
(through the information channels) in the information
subsystem.
The objective of the economic information
system is to provide information to each management
element in the required time, quantity and quality.
The main function of economic information is to
serve as a management tool.
An additional function of economic information
is to provide a historical record of reality. 23
 When depicting economic reality through
economic information, we can use the relation :
I = f (R) , where
I– economic information
R – economic reality
f – depicting rule according to which an
economic information about the reality is created.

Economic information may be divided into:

 basic economic information;
 combined economic information;
 information file.
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 Basic economic information is defined as a
certain arrangement of symbols (numerical,
alphabetical or alphabetical-numerical). In terms of
semantic content, it is further indivisable. If it were
divided, it would lose its meaning, as it would not
include any element of economic reality.
Combined economic information includes a
certain arranged order of basic economic information in
order to have clear economic meaning. Clear order is
particularly important for the computational information
processing.
Combined economic information is the order
related to a certain company: registration number,
business name, type, number of employees, volume of
production, etc.
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 An information file consists of one or several
pieces of combined information and of the same
amount of at least one of the basic pieces of economic
information (set of stock of goods in X store, set of
tangible fixed assets in the facility Y,…).
We must also follow the features of economic
information to ensure that it fulfils its purpose, for
example:
* reliability;
* promptness;
* Specificity and completeness;
* adaptability and flexibility;
* dependence;
* observability; 26
 1.1 Cybernetics
CYBERNETICS  a science dealing with the study of
random systems which are able to receive, store and
process information and use it for the management.
The management processes which are proceeded
on a relatively high level of the substance
development are the subject of cybernetics. The
cybernetics is understood as a science on the
formal aspect of management in complex dynamic
systems. It contributes to the discovery of the
most general relations of the management which
are expressed in terms of the formal-logic,
mathematic and information aspects. It formulates
general management regulations in a scientific
form. It explains the factual aspect of the27
management of the objects only on the general
 Theory of Systems

The theory of systems is based on the

interdisciplinary understanding of the term system. It uses
an extensive logical-mathematical apparatus for the
research of formal systems and unifies the behavioral
aspects of different types of systems. It develops the
methods for the definition and research of the systems,
their elements, surroundings for depiction, analysis and the
optimizing of the system structure and for the analysis and
optimizing of their behavior.

In the modern concept, the theory of systems

deals with the study of general, abstract and real
systems, their behavior (activity), adaptabiliby
and interaction with the surrounding.
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SYSTEM  purposefully defined set of elements which is
not empty and the set of links between them, while both
sets determine the features of the unit.
SUBSYSTEM  a system which may be deemed part of the
suprasystem; it creates a relatively closed, independent
unit inside a suprasystem.
ELEMENT OF THE SYSTEM  is a part of the system which, on
the given distinguishing level forms an inseparable unit.
LINK  connection, interaction between the elements of
the system or between the elements of the system and
elements of the surroundings.
SYSTEM STRUCTURE  a set of elements and links of the
system.
SYSTEM SURROUNDINGS  a set of elements which do not
form a part of the system, but have links with its elements.

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 System (S) may be defined as a final set of
elements (E) and a set of links between them
(L) with dynamic, purposeful behavior
S = {E, L} .

There are several definitions of the system.

However, all of them, despite certain differences, have
the following common features:
 a system is a complex of mutually related elements;
 a system expresses a special unity with the
surroundings;
 a system may be also an element of a suprasystem;
 a system can also be an element of a subsystem.

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 Elements of the System

A man, activity, company, symbol, etc. may be an

element. A distinguishing level which represents the “depth”
of the view in the system is important for defining an
element. If the distinguishing level is higher, the element
may become a system, and vice versa, if it is lower, the
system may become an element. For the system “company”,
the “facility” is an element, for the system “facility” the
“centers” are the elements, for the system “center”, the
“employees” are the elements, etc .

On the selected distinguishing level, the element

of the system forms an inseparable part of the unit
whose structure we cannot or do not want to
distinguish.
Each element of the system has at least one input and
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one output.
 System Links

A link is a mutual connection (interaction) between two

elements of a system or between the element of
a system and the element of the surroundings of the
system.

The links are distinguished according to:

 the form (direct, feedback, serial, parallel,
conducting, distributing, open, closed and their
various combinations)
 the content (substantive-energetic, informational,
organizational etc.).

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Link Name Graphic expression

direct A B

parallel distributing C
open A
B
parallel conducting C
C
B
serial
A B C

direct return
A B
indirect return

own return A B C
closed

serial return
A

A B C

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Basic types of links
 Record of the Structure of the System

The structure of the system is depicted:

in words;
graphically;
table of links;
general pattern.

a word description of the structure of the

system may be only used with regard to small and
transparent systems; otherwise it loses its
transparency and examplification.
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 Graphic depiction is, to the certain size of the
described system the most transparent and
exemplified.

system
S system
surroundings B D F surroundings

x A C E y

Graphic depiction of the structure of the system 35

Table expression of the structure of the system uses
the advantages of the matrix manner of the recording
of elements and links between them. The columns in
the matrix designate the elements which are controlled
and the rows designate the elements which control .

S A B C D E F y
x 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
A 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
B 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1
C 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 2
D 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 3
E 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
F 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1
2 1 2 1 1 2 1 10

Matrix of links of the structure of the system S 36

 Surroundings of the System

Some of the elements are in a direct link with the

system. These elements comprise substantial
surroundings of the system as a purposefully defined
set of surroundings which are in a direct relationship
with the boundary elements of the system through the
input and output links of the system.

Surroundings of the system are the set of

elements which do not form part of the system.

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 Classification of Systems
According to the relation to reality, the systems are
divided into:
substantive;
abstract.
According to the relation (interaction) with the
surrounding, the systems are divided into :
•closed (absolutely isolated):
•relatively isolated
•open
According to the origin of their creation, into systems:
manmade;
natural.
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 Classification of Systems
According to the manner of behavior into
systems:
 deterministic;
 stochastic.
According to the behavior at the time into
systems:
 static;
 dynamic.
According to the content, systems:
 informational;
 organizational etc.
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 Functional Types of Systems
x 1 … xn
x x 1 … xn x

S S S
System Convergent
Systém Divergent
with a simple system system
zvodný
function

x 1 … xn x 1 … xn

y yy y1 … yn

S S
Combined System
mixed V with a feedback
system

y1 … yn y1 … yn 40
 Black Box

W. R. Ashby defined a special type of a

system in which input stimuli and output reactions
are known, but the system structure (internal
organisation) is unknown. He called the system the
black box.

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 Objective of the System
System objective  effort to achieve
a clearly-defined end-state
The basic objective of the system is to achieve facts
which are of the system’s primary and subjective interest.
The strategic objective is to guide the system behaviour
to a specific direction in the long run. It should contain an
optimum solution that leads to achieving the basic objective of
the system. It is usually determined on a qualitative basis only.
The tactical objective of the system is usually formulated
on a quantitative basis. It generally includes the facts that do
not record significant or long-lasting changes n the system.
The operational objective of the system is effective for a
short period of time, it is highly detailed and it serves as a
basis for the direct guidance of the system.
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 Guidance of Processes in the System
The guidance of ongoing processes in the
system, the so-called induction of desirable responses
by selecting appropriate stimuli, is carried out in three
manners: control, regulation and management.

The control of the system is a process in which

one or more input variables actively affect output
variables based on structural and functional
patterns that are intrinsic to the system.

P1 P2

Control Scheme 43
 Guidance of Processes in the System

Regulation is a purposeful activity of a performer

(regulator) affecting the subject (regulated system), the
purpose of which is to maintain the stability (or
permissible limits of deviations) of the features of the
regulated system that are essentail in terms of its target
behaviour.

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Guidance of Processes in the System

Activities of
the surroundings

Programme
of regulatory Regulator
activities
Monitoring of
Regulatory the regulated
activities system

Regulated
system

Target
behaviour

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Regulation Scheme
 Guidance of Processes in the System

Management is a deliberate activity (influence,

guidance) of a performer (the system’s managing
component, the subject of management) towards the
subject matter of activities (performing component
of the system, the object of management) in which
the purpose of activities is to induce such behaviour
of the performing system out of the set of potential
behaviours through which the target will be
achieved.

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Guidance of Processes in the System

Activities of
the surroundings

Programme
of managing Subject of
activities management
Monitoring of the
Managing target behaviour of
activities the object of
Cieľové management
správanie
Object of
management

Target
behaviour

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Management Scheme
 Process Types
Management Planning Organisation Operational
Phases management
Decision-making X 11 X 12 X 13
Motivation X 21 X 22 X 23
Control X 31 X 32 X 33

Planning Creation and formulation of objectives

Organisation Recurring processes in relatively stable
organisational structures
Operational management Management of extraordinary situations
Decision-making Selection of several possible alternatives
Motivation Creation of stimuli in favour of the objective
of management
Control Feedback, control of the implementation of
decisions

Structure of the Overall Management Process

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 Providing Manager with Information

In the management process, information has several

significant functions characterising the activities of a
manager. They primarily include the following:
 It is a prerequisite for adequate knowledge of the existing
state of the managed system;
 It is a tool for creating plans;
 It is a material for control and operational management;
 It is a source of increasing their knowledge;
 It is a source of knowledge about the surroundings of the
managed system;
 It is a tool of organising, coordinating and motivating the
activity of managed subjects; and
 It is a subject matter of communication in the system.

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 System Analysis and Synthesis

SYSTEM ANALYSIS  a set of methods that enable

one to explain, understand and ensure
functional capability of the analysed system.
SYSTEM SYNTHESIS  a procedure the aim of
which is to propose based on the performed
analysis a system structure ensuring the desired
behaviour of the system.

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 System Analysis
System analysis is a set of tasks and methods of
their completion formulated on objects the aim of
which is to identify or ensure system properties of
the monitored objects.

For this purpose, descriptive methods (verbal

description of the system structure and behaviour), exact
methods (formalised that primarily use a mathematical
apparatus, e.g. table description, graph theory, set theory,
propositional calculus etc.) and heuristic methods (a
combination of the above two methods) are applied.
In practice, the most frequently used method in the
system analysis is the top-down method (a method of
gradual top-down decomposition).
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Distinguishing Level

1 Repair company

2 Material supply Sale Transport Production Administration

3 Suppliers Sellers Disassembly Repair service Secretariat

Warehouses Warehouses Accounting

Workshop 1 Workshop 4
4 HR
Warehouse 1 Warehouse 4 Workshop 2 Workshop 5
IT
Warehouse 2 Warehouse 5 Workshop 3

Warehouse 3 Tool works Assembly

Workshop 6

Workshop 7

Workshop 8

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Example of the system decomposition using the top-dow
 System Synthesis

System synthesis is a procedure of determining

system elements and their links to ensure the
desired behaviour of the system.

The system synthesis is carried out after a

thorough system analysis and is strictly based on the
conclusions thereof. The aim of the system synthesis
may also include the improvement of the existing
system functions.

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 Algorithm and Algorithmisation
ALGORITHM  a precise description of the
sequence of steps leading from variable input
data to the required outputs.

Basic features of an algorithm:

 Unambiguous – each step of the algorithm must be clearly defined and must
not enable several interpretations;
 General – the algorithm must provide a solution of a general group of tasks.
It must be based on variable input data, i.e. it must be a description of the
solution of the entire group of related tasks differing from each by input data
only rather than one task; and
 Resultant – the algorithm must always lead to a solution after a finite number
of steps. In this case, the ordering of a towing service is also considered a
solution although it may seem that nothing has been solved as the vehicle is
still non-functional. However, we hand over the vehicle to an expert that will
proceed according to his own and undoubtedly better algorithms.

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 Algorithm and Algorithmisation
ALGORITHM  a precise description of the
sequence of steps leading from variable input
data to the required outputs.

Basic features of an algorithm:

 Unambiguous – each step of the algorithm must be
clearly defined and must not enable several
interpretations;
 General – the algorithm must provide a solution of a
general group of tasks. It must be based on variable
input data, i.e. it must be a description of the solution of
the entire group of related tasks differing from each by
input data only rather than one task; and
 Resultant – the algorithm must always lead to a solution
55
after a finite number of steps.
ALGORITHM  is a precise description of a determined
activity (action) that processes various input data
meeting the given conditions to created desired
results.

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 Means of Designing and Entering
Algorithms

Verbal description is the simplest method of

describing and expressing algorithms.
In this manner, algorithms are often
expressed in everyday life.
Examples of such verbal descriptions of
algorithms include acts, decrees, standards, user
manuals for consumer products, technological
regulations etc.

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 Means of Designing and Expressing
Algorithms

Symbolic language is often used to express

algorithms in design practice. Symbolic languages
are somewhat similar to programming languages.
Symbolic languages have a well-defined
syntax (method of entering operations, formulation
of conditions etc.) and semantics (the repertoire and
meaning of operations that can be applied).
Symbolic languages enable one to describe
the entire algorithm in a condensed form in a small
space.

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 Means of Designing and Expressing
Algorithms

Flowchart is a method of graphical depiction

of algorithms describing their structure and
sequence of operations.
There are three types of flowcharts: a
flowchart of a task that describes the algorithm of
the entire task and that consists of sub-components
(programmes), a flowchart of a programme
(algorithm) that graphically illustrates the logical
structure (algorithm) of a sub-task (programme) and
a flowchart of data that graphically depicts the flow
of data through the system.

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 Beginning/End Print set

Input/output Magnetic disk

Performance block Connector

Decisive block Connecting line

Some flowchart symbols

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 Means of Designing and Expressing
Algorithms
V – S – V diagrams are based on the flowchart method
and are particularly suitable for the solution of algorithms of
entire tasks consisting of sequences of consecutive steps with
a minimum of decision-making.
Flowchart symbols are applied to depict individual steps
of algorithms.
To better distinguish the function in the algorithm step,
symbols are depicted in three columns:
• Input data (files, documents etc.)
• Processing of the operation (actions, decision-making,
programme, sub-programme etc.)
• Output data (screens, files, print sets, archiving media etc.).

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Input Processing Output
Step 1:
Acquisition of data

Archiving
Verification magnetic
Accounting of accounting medium
documents documents

Verification description
of accounting
documents
Step 2:
Acquisition of data
- verification of errors
Yes

Verification description Go to
Errors? step 1
of accounting
documents
No
Continue

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 Means of Designing and Expressing
Algorithms
Decision tables – unlike flowcharts, they are
an ideal instrument for modeling decision-making
processes. They are used to tackle economic,
technical, legal, social and other issues.
The structure of the decision table consists
of the formal and content layout. It is made up of
four interlinked parts – quadrants, heading and,
where applicable, an introductory rule and notes.
The structure made up of quadrants and a
heading is called a basic layout.

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Heading
Introductory rule
Quadrant I Quadrant III
Specification of conditions Selection of conditions
Quadrant II Quadrant IV
Specification of actions Selection of actions
Notes

Decision table layout

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Decision table quadrants have the following titles and
meanings:
• Condition formulation quadrant – contains expressions
formulating independent factors – conditions that need
to be taken into account in implementing a task.
• Action formulation quadrant – contains formulations of
all dependent expressions – actions forming decision-
making variants or their sub-parts.
• State of conditions quadrant – contains combinations
of true states of values; they indicate what values
acquire conditions. They are data suggesting whether
and how the conditions are met.
• Action selection quadrant – contains data indicating
what actions are carried out and in what sequence they
are conducted depending on the combination of 65 the
states of conditions.
 Means of Designing and Expressing
Algorithms

Structured programming is a set of methods

of designing algorithms and programmes that
comprises a number of differently-formulated
procedures complying with the basic principle of
using several simple structures of which the
solution of the entire algorithm consists.
Structure diagram is a very efficient means
of describing the structure of data, programmes
and processing logic. It enables e.g. the entry of
data that cannot be expressed using conventional
formalised means.

66
 Object-Oriented Approach
The principal change in thinking introduced by the
object-oriented approach is the following view of data:
Not only do data represent values grouped into data
structures, but they also refer to objects that directly
correspond to real entities.
 It should ensure “persistence (of data after the
completion of the process that works with them)”,
concurrent access of several users, reliability of data and
the possibility of “ad-hoc” questions;
 It should be object-oriented, i.e. it should acknowledge
the existence of the identity of objects, types or classes,
encapsulation (of objects and methods that manipulate
them), polymorphism, inheritance, complex objects,
extensibility and computational completeness. 67