22ME505 – Instrumentation

& Control System

Prof.R.Isaac
AP (GL) – Mech
Unit I : General Concepts of Measurement
Unit II : Signal Conditioning
Unit III : Data Acquisition
Unit IV : Time Response Analysis
Unit V : Frequency Domain Analysis
Unit I : General Concepts of Measurement

Measurement System,
Measurements provide us with a means of describing various phenomena in
quantitative terms.

It has quoted “Whatever exists, exists in some amount”.

The Measurement of a given quantity is essentially an act or result of

comparison between a quantity whose magnitude (amount) is unknown, with a similar
quantity whose magnitude (amount) is known the latter quantity being called a
Standard.
Methods of Measurement

Direct Methods
The unknown quantity (also called the measurand) is directly compared against a standard.

The result is expressed as a numerical number and a unit.

Measurement of physical quantities like length, mass and time.

Indirect Methods
A measurement system consists of a transducing element which converts the quantity to
be measured into an analogous signal.

The analogous signal is then processed by some intermediate means and is then fed to
the end devices which present the results of the measurement.
Classification of Measurements
Primary Measurements,
A primary measurement is one that can be made by direct observation without
involving any conversion of the measured quantity into length.

Secondary Measurements,
A Secondary measurement involves only one translation to be done on the
quantity under measurement to convert it into a change of length.

Example : Pressure Measurements.

 Classification of Measurements
Tertiary Measurements,

A Tertiary measurement involves two translations.

A Thermocouple is a sensor used to measure temperature. Thermocouples

consist of two wire legs made from different metals. The wire legs are welded
together at one end, creating a junction. This junction is where the temperature is
measured. When the junction experiences a change in temperature, a voltage is
created. The voltage can then be interpreted using thermocouple to calculate the
temperature.
Instruments
Mechanical Instruments
Very reliable for static and stable conditions.

Electrical and Electronic Instruments

The instrument used to measure the magnitude of an electric current with
different objectives
Functions of Instruments

Indicating Function
The information obtained as a deflection of a pointer of a measuring instrument.

Recording Function
The instrument makes a written record usually on paper, of value of the quantity
under measurement against time or against some other variables.

Controlling Function
The information is used by the instrument or the system to control the original
measured quantity.
Application of Measurement System

Monitoring of processes and Operations

Control of processes and Operations

Experimental Engineering Analysis

Types of Instrumentation Systems

Intelligent Instrumentation

Dumb Instrumentation
Elements of Generalized Measurement System

Primary Sensing Element

Variable Conversion Element

Data Presentation Element

 Transducers

A device which converts a physical quantity or a physical condition

into an electric signal.
 Advantages of Transducers

The mass-inertia effects are minimized.

The effects of friction minimized.

The electrical or electronic systems can be controlled with very small

power level.

The electrical output can be easily used, transmitted and processed

for the purpose of measurement.

Telemetry is used in almost all sophisticated measurement system.

Classification of Transducers

On the basis of transduction from used.

As primary and secondary transducers.

As passive and active transducers.

As analog and digital transducers.

As transducers and inverse transducers.

 Primary and Secondary Transducers

The mechanical device acts as a primary detector transducer or

primary transducer.

The electrical device acts as a secondary transducer in a same

measurement system.
 Passive and Active Transducers

The passive transducers derive the power required for transduction

from an auxiliary power source.

Also called as Externally powered transducers.

The Active transducers are those which do not require an auxiliary

power source to produce their output.

Also called as Self generating transducers.

 Analog and Digital Transducers

The analog transducers convert the input quantity into an analog

output which is a continuous function of time.

The digital transducers convert the input quantity into an electrical

output which in the form of pulses.
 Transducers and Inverse Transducers

A transducer can be broadly defined as a device which converts a

non-electrical quantity an electrical quantity.

A transducer which converts an electrical quantity into non electrical

quantity is called Inverse Transducers.
Characteristics of Transducers

Input Characteristics

Transfer Characteristics

Output Characteristics
Input Characteristics of Transducers

Types of input and operating range

Loading Effects
Transfer Characteristics of Transducers

Transfer Function

The transfer function defines a relationship between the input quantity

and the output.

The scale factor defines inverse of sensitivity.

Transfer Characteristics of Transducers

Error

Scale Error

Zero Error, The output deviates from the correct value by a

constant factor over the entire range of the transducer.

Sensitivity Error, Sensitivity error occurs where the

observed output deviates from the correct value by a
constant value.
Transfer Characteristics of Transducers

Error

Scale Error

Non-Conformity, the experimentally obtained transfer

function deviates from the theoretical transfer function for
almost every input.
Transfer Characteristics of Transducers

Error

Dynamic Error

Dynamic error occur only when input quantity is varying

with time.

Errors due to noise and drift

Errors due to change of frequency (Frequency response)

Output Characteristics of Transducers

Type of electrical output

The type of output which may be available from the transducers

may be a voltage, current, impedance or a time function of these
amplitudes.
Output Characteristics of Transducers

Output Impedance

The output impedance determines the amount of power that can

be transferred to the succeeding stages of the instrumentation
system for a given output signal level.
The Factors Influencing the choice of Transducers

Operating Principle Sensitivity

Operating Range Accuracy

Cross Sensitivity Errors

Transient & Frequency Response Loading Effect

Environmental Compatibility Electrical Aspects

Insensitivity to Unwanted Signals Usage & Ruggedness

Stability and Reliability Static Characteristics

 Sensor

A element of the system which is effectively in contact with the

process for which a variable is being measured and gives an output which
depends in some way on the value of the variable and which can be used
by the rest of the measurement system to give a value it.
 Temperature Sensor

A Temperature Sensor is a device which is used to measure heat or

temperature.

A thermocouple is a temperature-measuring device consisting of two

dissimilar conductors that contact each other at one or more points.

It produces a voltage when the temperature of one of the points differs

from the reference temperature at other parts of the circuit.
 Types of Temperature Sensor

Thermocouples: These are voltage devices that indicate temperature

measuring with a change in voltage. As temperature goes up, the output
voltage of the thermocouple rises.

Resistor Temperature Detectors (RTD): The resistance of the device is

directly proportional to the temperature, increase in a positive direction
when the temperature rises resistance going up.
 Types of Temperature Sensor

Thermistors: It is a temperature sensitive resistor that changes its

physical resistance with the change in temperature.

Infrared sensors: It detects temperature by intercepting a portion of

emitted infrared energy of the object or substance, and sensing its
intensity, can be used to measure temperature of solids and liquids only,
Not possible to use it on gases because of their transparent nature.
Proximity Sensor

Proximity sensor is using to detect the motion.

 Types of Proximity Sensor
Inductive Sensors: Inductive proximity sensors are used for non-
contact detection to find out the presence of metallic objects using
electromagnetic field or a beam of electromagnetic radiation. It can
operate at higher speeds than mechanical switches and also seems more
reliable because of its robustness.
 Types of Proximity Sensor
Capacitive Sensors : Capacitive proximity sensors can detect both
metallic as well as non-metallic targets. Nearly all other materials are
dielectric different from air. It can be used to sense very small objects
through a large portion of target. So, generally used in difficult and
complicated applications.
 Types of Proximity Sensor
Photoelectric Sensors : Photoelectric sensor is made up of light-
sensitive parts and uses a beam of light to detect the presence or
absence of an object. It is an ideal alternative of inductive sensors. And
used for long distance sensing or to sense non-metal object.
 Types of Proximity Sensor
Ultrasonic Sensors: Ultrasonic sensors are also used to detect the
presence or to measure the distance of targets similar to radar or sonar.
This makes a reliable solution for harsh and demanding conditions.
 Pressure Sensor
A pressure sensor is a gadget equipped with a pressure-sensitive
element that’s used to measure the pressure of a liquid or a gas
against a diaphragm made of silicon, stainless steel, etc., and converts the
measured value into an electrical signal as an output.

It’s also use to measure the water flow through pipes or tank and
notify the concern person when something need to be fixed.

Now a days pressure sensor is used in aircraft and vehicles to

determine the altitude and force.
Types of Sensor
Light sensors - Photodiodes, Phototransistors, Photoresistors
Pressure sensors - Piezoresistive, Capacitive, Resonant
Force sensors - Strain Gauges, Load Cells
Motion sensors - Accelerometers, Gyroscopes
Magnetic sensors - Hall effect, Magnetoresistive
Sound sensors - Microphones
Gas sensors – Elec. chem. gas sensor, Fluorescent chloride sensor
Radiation sensors - Geiger counters
Difference Between Sensor and Transducer
Difference Between Sensor and Transducer
Definition
Sensor : is a device which converts the physical parameter of
a quantity into corresponding electrical output.

Transducer : is a device that transforms energy from one form

to another, such as speed into electrical signal.
Difference Between Sensor and Transducer
Main Components
Sensor : does not have any other component except itself.

Transducer : consist of input device (sensor), processing

device (signal conditioning) and output device.

Complexity
Sensor : less complicated in its construction and processing.

Transducer : relatively more complex device because it

involves the transformation of energy from one form to
another.
Difference Between Sensor and Transducer
Feed Back
Sensor : does not provide any feedback to the system. Which
means, it only measures the change in the physical quantity
and cannot give input to the system on its own.

Transducer : generally provides a feedback to the system

through the output device after processing.

Function
Sensor : detects the change in the physical parameter of
quantity to produce corresponding electrical signal.

Transducer : converts the energy into a different form.

Difference Between Sensor and Transducer
Examples
Sensor : Temperature Sensor, Photo Sensor, Proximity
Sensor.
Transducer : Strain Gauge, Microphone, Loud speaker,
Piezoelectric element.
Selection of Sensor

The nature of the measurement required, the sensor input.

The nature of the output required from the sensor, this determining
the signal processing required.
Unit - II Signal Conditioning
Operational Amplifier
Block Diagram of Operational Amplifier (IC741)
Block Diagram of Operational Amplifier (IC741)
Application of Operational Amplifier
DC Amplifier
Addition
Subtraction
Multiplication
Division
Integrator
Comparator
Oscillator
Buffer
Sine to Square wave
Addition
Comparator
Comparator
Integrator
Differentiator
Sine to Square Wave
Operational Amplifier
Ideal Characteristics of Operational Amplifier

Infinite Voltage Gain

No Temperature Drift
Zero Out Resistance
Vout Zero when Vin is Zero
Infinite Bandwidth
Wheat’s Stone Bridge

Kirchhoff's Voltage Law

The algebraic sum of every voltage in the loop has to be
equal to zero.

Kirchhoff's Current Law

The algebraic sum of every current entering and leaving
the node or Junction has to be null.
Wheat’s Stone Bridge
Wheat’s Stone Bridge
Applying Kirchoff’s Current Law to Jn b,
I1 – IG – I3 = 0 ----- (1)

Applying Kirchoff’s Current Law to Jn d,

I2 + IG – I4 = 0 ----- (2)
Applying Kirchoff’s Voltage Law to Loop abda,
I1P + IGG – I2R= 0 ----- (3)

Applying Kirchoff’s Voltage Law to Loop abcda,

I1P + I3Q – I4S - I2R = 0 ----- (4)
Wheat’s Stone Bridge
I1 – I G – I 3 = 0 ----- (1)
I2 + I G – I 4 = 0 ----- (2)
I1P + IGG – I2R= 0 ----- (3)
I 1P + I 3Q – I 4S - I 2R = 0 ----- (4)

When the points b and d are at same potential, bridge is said to be

balanced, so IG = 0
I1 – I 3 = 0 I1 = I 3
I2 – I 4 = 0 I2 = I 4
I1P – I2R= 0 I1P = I2R ----- (5)
Analog to Digital Conversion

The process changes a sampled analog voltage into digital

form.
This process, Conceptually involves the following two steps,
Quantizing : It is defined as the transformation of a
continuous analog input into a set of discrete output
states.
Coding : It is assignment of a digital code word or
number to each output state.
Components in A/D Conversion,
Buffer Amplifier,
provides a signal in a range close to but not exceeding
the full input voltage range of the A/D converter.
Low-pass Filter,
necessary to remove any undesirable high-frequency
components in the signal that could produce aliasing.
The out-off frequency of the low-pass filter should not be
greater than half the sampling rate.
Sample and Hold Amplifier,
maintains a fixed input value during the short conversion
time of the A/D converter.
Components in A/D Conversion,
A/D Converter,
should have a resolution and analog quantization size
appropriate to the system and signal.
Computer,
must be properly interfaced to A/D converter system to
store and process the data.
Analog to Digital Converter (ADC),

an electronic device that converts an analog voltage to a

digital code.

The output of the ADC can be directly interfaced to digital

devices such as microcontroller and computers.
ADC are designed based on a number of different principles,

Successive Approximations

Flash or Parallel Encoding

Single-Slope and Dual-Slope Integration

Switched Capacitor

Delta Sigma
Successive Approximations ADC,
Successive Approximations ADC,
Exact
Analog Compar
Digital SAR
Value (in ator
Represent Output
Volt) Output
ation
11010100
00000000 0 1
(212 V)
10000000 128 1
11000000 192 1
11100000 224 0
11010000 208 1
11011000 216 0
11010100 212 0
Advantages of Successive Approximations ADC,

High Accuracy

Low Power Consumption

Easy to Use

Low Latency Time

Flash or Parallel Encoding ADC,
Flash or Parallel Encoding ADC,
Flash or Parallel Encoding ADC,
Advantages Flash or Parallel Encoding ADC,

Fastest ADC
Suitable for Large Bandwidth Applications

Disadvantages Flash or Parallel Encoding ADC,

High Power Consumption

Limited Resolution (Upto 8 Bit)
Large Die Area
Dual Slope ADC,
Advantages Dual Slope ADC,

High Accuracy
Excellent Noise Rejection

Disadvantages Dual Slope ADC,

Very Slow Process
Delta Sigma ADC,
Delta Sigma ADC,
Advantages Delta Sigma ADC,

High Resolution
Low Cost ADC
Digital to Analog Converter (DAC),

Weighted Resistor DAC

R-2R Ladder Network DAC

Weighted Resistor DAC,
R-2R Ladder Network DAC,
Choppers,
Chopper is a device which converts fixed DC voltage to
variable voltage.

Applications,
Battery Operated Vehicles
Subway Car
Trolley Buses
Battery Charges
Choppers,
AC Link Chopper
DC Chopper
AC Link Chopper,
First DC is converted to AC by inverter
AC is stepped up/down by transformer
Then its converted back to DC by Diode Rectifier.
DC Chopper
It is static device which converts fixed DC voltage to variable
DC voltage directly in single stage.

DC Chopper used to Step up and Step Down the fixed DC input

voltage.
Chopper systems offer smooth control, high efficiency, faster
response and regeneration.
DC Chopper,
DC Chopper is high speed ON/OFF semiconductor switch.
It connects source to load and disconnects the load from
source at fast speed.
Chopped load voltage is obtained from constant DC supply
Voltage of Magnitude.
Step Up DC Chopper / Boost Converter,
Duty Cycle (D),
Duty cycle is the ratio of switching ON time of the chopper to
the Total period of time.
The value of duty cycle is always 0 or 1.
When the value is 0, the switch is in OFF.
When the value is 1, the switch is in ON.
It is responsible for the varying of DC voltages and controlling
of it.
Step Down Chopper / Buck Converter,
Functions of Dc Choppers,
To Convert DC input voltage to DC controlled output voltage.
To regulate DC output voltage against load and line
variations.
To provide isolation between the input source and load.
To protect the supply system and source from Electro
Magnetic Interference.
Types of Choppers,

Step up / Boost Step Down / Buck

Converter Converter
According to i/p &
o/p Voltage levels
Voltage Communication Current Communication
Buck-Boost Converter Converters Converters

According to
communication
method

Load Communication Impulse Communication

Class B Converters Converters
Class A

According to direction
of o/p voltage &
current

Class C Class D
Voltage to Frequency Converter,
Voltage to Frequency converter is an Oscillator.
Oscillator is a device which converts the direct current to an
alternating current.
Frequency is linearly proportional to the control voltage.
Voltage to Frequency Converter,

Voltage to Frequency converter circuit typically consist of an

Analog Voltage Amplifier, Oscillator circuit, Diode required
Resistors, Capacitors and Driving Power Supply.
Classification of Voltage to Frequency Converter,

Current Steering VFC

Charge Balance VFC
Synchronous VFC
Current Steering Voltage to Frequency Converter,
Advantages of Current Steering VFC,

Simple Circuit
Low Powered
Low Cost
Charge Balance Voltage to Frequency Converter,
Synchronous Voltage to Frequency Converter,
Voltage to Time Converter,
Unit - III Data Acquisition
Data Acquisition,
is the process of using output signals and inputting that into a
computer.
The output signal may be one that originates from direct
measurement of electrical quantities such as voltage, frequency,
resistance etc. or that originates from sensors.

Data Acquisition is the process of sampling signals that

measure real world physical conditions and converting the
resulting samples into digital numeric values that can be
manipulated by a computer.

Data Acquisition system is designed not only to acquire data,

Objectives of Data Acquisition,
it must acquire the necessary data, at correct speed and at
the correct time.
Use of all data efficiently to inform the operator about the
state of the instrument.
It must monitor the complete plant operation to maintain on-
line optimum and safe operations.
It must provide an effective human communication system
and be able to identify problem areas, thereby minimizing unit
availability and maximizing unit through point at minimum cost.
It must be able to compute unit performance indices using on-
line, real-time data.
It must be able to collect, summarize and store for diagnosis of
operation and record purpose.
Components Data Acquisition system,
A typical Data Acquisition System consists of individual
sensors with the necessary
Signal Conditioning
Data Conversion
Data Processing
Multiplexing
Data Handling & Associated Transmission
Storage & Display Sytems.
Components Data Acquisition system,
Components Data Acquisition system,
Essential Functions of Data Acquisition system,

Handling of analog signals.

Converting the data to digital form and handling it.
Internal Programming and Controls.
Generalized Data Acquisition System,
Generalized Data Acquisition System,
Transducers
They convert the physical quantity into proportional
electrical signal which is given as a input to the digital
data acquisition system.
Signal Conditioner
They include supporting circuits for amplifying, modifying
or selecting certain position of these signals.
Multiplexers
The multiplexer accepts multiple analog inputs and
connects them sequentially to one measuring
instrument.
Generalized Data Acquisition System,
A/D Converters
The analog to digital converter converts the analog
voltage to its equivalent digital form.
The output of the analog to digital converter may be fed
to the digital display devices for display or to digital
recorders for recording.
Auxiliary Equipment's
The devices which are used for system programming
functions and digital data processing are included in the
auxiliary equipments.
Generalized Data Acquisition System,
Digital Recorders
They record the information in digital form.
The digital printer used provides a high quality, hard
copy for records minimizing the operator’s work.
Single Channel Data Acquisition System,
Multichannel Data Acquisition System,
PC Based Data Acquisition System,
Data Loggers,
The data logger is the application of a data acquisition
system.
The basic function of data logger is to automatically make the
record of the readings of the various instruments located at
different parts of the plant.
Characteristics of Data Logger,
The system can be expanded considering future
requirements. This cannot interrupt the existing work system.
The expansion of the data loggers is very simple and efficient.
It has really good reliability. It is designed to operate
continuously without any interruption even under worst industrial
conditions.
The required or specified accuracy is maintained throughout
the period used.
This interfaces with the operator with very easy, logical but
simple manner. Hence it is very easy to operate, understand and
expand.
Block Diagram of Data Logger,
Input / Output Process,

I/O modules usually include Analog channels, digital channels,

or a combination of both.
Analog inputs can detect various signals including frequency,
voltage, or current.
Digital inputs and outputs are used for low-level on-off signals.
I/O modules that have analog inputs and digital outputs often
incorporate an analog-to-digital (A to D) converter to sufficiently
process the signal.
Types of Input Process,
Single Ended Input

Differential Input
Counters and Timers,

A counter is a device capable of counting the number of

pulses arriving at its clock input.

It is a sequential circuit

It is implemented using Flip flops.

n bit counter contains n Flip flops and 2n states.

Frequency Output = Frequency Input / No. of States

Application of Counters,
Digital Clock
Frequency Counters
Time Measurement
A to D Converter
Frequency divider circuits
Types of Counters,
Asynchronous Counter
Up Counter
Down Counter
Synchronous Counter
Ring Counter
Up Counter
Down Counter
Asynchronous Counter,
Asynchronous Counter,
JK Flip flop,
 Synchronous Counters Asynchronous Counters
Simultaneous clock signal is given to Clock is provided to first flip-flop and the
all the flip-flops connected in output of first flip-flop acts as clock second
synchronous counters. flip-flop and so on.

Speed is fast as no clock delay is Speed is slow as compared

provided to flip-flops. to synchronous counters as clock signal is
delayed for other flip-flops except the first
one.
Circuit is complex or complicated as Circuit ls simple.
number of states increases.

Cost is more as additional circuitry Cost is less as compared to synchronous

is required. counters.

Synchronous counter is known as parallel Asynchronous counter is known as serial

counter. counter
Timers / Counter Circuit Diagram,
Direct Memory Access, (DMA)
Block Diagram of DMA
Direct Memory Access, (DMA)
Working Steps for DMA
If the DMA controller is free, it requests the control of
bus from the processor by raising the bus request
signal.
Processor grants the bus to the controller by raising the
bus grant signal, now DMA controller is the bus master.
The processor initiates the DMA controller by sending
the memory addresses, number of blocks of data to be
transferred and direction of data transfer.
Direct Memory Access, (DMA)
Working Steps for DMA
After assigning the data transfer task to the DMA
controller, instead of waiting ideally till completion of data
transfer, the processor resumes the execution of the
program after retrieving instructions from the stack.
It makes the data transfer according to the control
instructions received by the processor.
After completion of data transfer, it disables the bus
request signal and CPU disables the bus grant signal
thereby moving control of buses to the CPU.
Types of Data Transfer,
Burst Mode
In this mode DMA handover the buses to CPU only after
completion of whole data transfer.
Meanwhile, if the CPU requires the bus it has to stay
ideal and wait for data transfer.
Cycle Stealing Mode
DMA gives control of buses to CPU after transfer of
every byte.
It continuously issues a request for bus control, makes
the transfer of one byte and returns the bus.
By this CPU doesn't have to wait for a long time if it
needs a bus for higher priority task.
Types of Data Transfer,
Transparent Mode
DMA transfers data only when CPU is executing the
instruction which does not require the use of buses.
Types of Direct Memory Access, (DMA)

Single Ended DMA

Single ended DMA controllers operate by reading and writing from a

single memory address.

They are the simplest DMA.

Dual Ended DMA

Dual ended DMA controllers can read and write two memory
addresses.

Dual ended DMA is more advanced than single ended DMA.

Types of Direct Memory Access, (DMA)

Arbitrated Ended DMA

Arbitrated ended DM works by reading and writing to

several memory addresses.

It is more advanced than dual ended DMA.

Interleaved DMA

Interleaved DMA are those DMA that read from one

memory address and write from another memory
address.
Data Acquisition System Software,
Data Acquisition System Software,
Data Acquisition System Software,
Data Acquisition System Software,
Digital Data Transmission,

Synchronous
Serial
Digital Data
Asynchronous
Transmission
Parallel
Digital Data Transmission,
Synchronous Data Transmission – Serial
Sending bits one after another without start/stop or
gaps.
It is the responsibility of the receiver to group the bits.
The receiver counts the bits as they arrive and groups
them.
Digital Data Transmission,
Asynchronous Data Transmission – Serial
Send one start bit at the beginning and one more stop
bits at the end of each byte.
Unit - IV Time Response Analysis
Time Response,

If the output of control system for an input varies with respect

to time, then it is called the Time Response of the control
system.

It is a function of c(t).
Time Response,
It consist of Two Parts,

Transient Response

Steady State Response

From the Transient Response we can know,

When system begins to respond after an input is given.

How much time it takes to reach the output for the first time.

Whether the output shoots beyond the desired value & how
much.

Whether the output oscillates about its final value.

When does it settle to the final value.

From the Steady State Response we can know,

How long it took before steady state was reached.

Whether there is any error between the desired and actual

values.

Whether this error is constant, zero or infinite.

Time Response,
Transient Response,
It is the response of the system when the input changes
from one state to another.

Steady State Response

It is the response of the system for a given input after a
very long time.
Standard Test Signals,
The characteristics of actual input signals are a
Sudden Shock
Sudden Change
Constant Velocity
Constant Acceleration
The dynamic behavior of a system is therefore judged and compared
under application of standard test signals
An Impulse Signals
Step Signals
Ramp Signals
Parabolic Signals
Standard Test Signals,
Impulse Signal,
The impulse signal imitate the sudden shock
characteristic of actual input signal.
Mathematical Representation Graphical Representation

If A = 1, The Impulse Signal is called

as Unit Impulse Signal
Laplace Transform,
R(s) = 1
Standard Test Signals,
Step Signal,
The Step signal imitate the sudden change
characteristic of actual input signal.
Mathematical Representation Graphical Representation

If A = 1, The Step Signal is called

as Unit Step Signal
Laplace Transform,
R(s) = A/s
Standard Test Signals,
Ramp Signal,
The Ramp signal imitate the constant velocity
characteristic of actual input signal.
Mathematical Representation Graphical Representation

If A = 1, The Ramp Signal is called

as Unit Ramp Signal
Laplace Transform,
R(s) = A/s2
Standard Test Signals,
Parabolic Signal,
The Parabolic signal imitate the constant acceleration
characteristic of actual input signal.
Mathematical Representation Graphical Representation

If A = 1, The Parabolic Signal is called

as Unit Parabolic Signal
Laplace Transform,
R(s) = A/s3
Analysis of Response,
Transient Specifications,
Analysis of Response,
Transient Specifications,
Analysis of Response,
Transient Specifications,
Analysis of Response,
Transient Specifications,
Analysis of Response,
Transient Specifications,
Positional Error Constant
Velocity Error Constant
Accelaration Error Constant
Steady State Error & Static Error Constant – Step Input,
Type – 0 Type - 1

Type - 2
Steady State Error & Static Error Constant – Ramp Input,
Type – 0 Type - 1

Type - 2
Steady State Error & Static Error Constant – Parabolic Input,
Type – 0 Type - 1

Type - 2
Steady State Error & Static Error Constant,
Unit - V Frequency Response Analysis
Frequency Response,

The response of a system can be partitioned into both the

transient response and the steady state response.

We can find the transient response by using Fourier integrals.

The steady state response of a system for an input sinusoidal
signal is known as the frequency response.

The sinusoid is a unique input signal, and the resulting output

signal for a linear system, as well as signals throughout the
system, is sinusoidal in the steady state.
Frequency Response Specification,
Resonant Peak (Mr),
It is the maximum value of the magnitude.
Mr gives indication on the relative stability of a stable closed-loop system.

Normally, a large Mr corresponds to a large maximum overshoot of the step

response. For most control systems, it is generally accepted in practice that the
desirable value of Mr should be between 1.1 and 1.5.

Resonant Frequency (ωr),

It is the frequency at which peak resonance, M r, occurs.

Bandwidth (BW),
It is the frequency range over which the magnitude drops 3 decibels (dB) from its
zero frequency value.
BW gives indications of the transient response properties in time domain. A large
Methods to find frequency analysis,

Bode Plot
Polar Plot
Nichols Plot
M & N Circles
Nichol’s Chart
Steady State Error,
Steady State Error,
Asynchronous Counter,
Asynchronous Counter,
Asynchronous Counter,
Asynchronous Counter,
Asynchronous Counter,
Asynchronous Counter,
Asynchronous Counter,
Asynchronous Counter,
Asynchronous Counter,
Asynchronous Counter,