COLLABORATIVE

MINDS
 TASLEEM AKRAM (LEADER) (GBNACOSC2411011112)
 SUFYAN ALI (GBNACOSC2411011128)
 M ABRAR (GBNACOSC2411011120)
 ALI RAZA (GBNACOSC2411011136)
Course: Introduction to ICT
Instructor: Sir Fawad Aslam
BSCS-Evening (B)
Govt. degree college Bahawal Nagar
 CONTEXT

• Bits & Bytes

• Text codes
• Computer way of representing data
• CPU
• Control Unit
• ALU
 BITS AND BYTES

Bits
• A bit is the smallest unit of data in computing . It can have a value of
either 0 or 1.They are the building blocks of digital information.
• Bits are used to represent the state of a digital signal ,such as the
presence of an electrical charge.
• A single bit can represent a single binary choice, like on/off or true/false.
• Bits are commonly used to express data transfer rates, such as internet
speed (Kbps, Mbps, etc.)
 BYTE
• A byte is a group of 8 bits. Half of a byte (4 bits) is called nibble. It is
a larger unit of data that can represent more complex information.
• Bytes are commonly used to encode characters in text , such as
letters, numbers and symbols.
• The ASCII code for the letter “A” is 65, which is represented in binary
as 01000001. One byte can store one character, like “A” , “X” , or “$”.
• Byte is used to express file size or storage capacity.(e.g. MB,GB).
COMMON UNITS OF MEASUREMENT:

Data is measured using the following hierarchy

• Kilobyte (KB) = 1,024 bytes.
e
• Megabyte (MB) = 1,024 Kilobytes
• Gigabyte (GB) = 1,024 Megabyte
• Terabyte (TB) = 1,024 Gigabyte
This hierarchy is extend to petabytes, exabyte,
and zettabytes.
 TEXT CODES
What Are Text Codes?
• Text codes are encoding schemes that convert characters into a sequence of
binary digits (bits). These codes allow computers to handle text as numerical
values, enabling storage, computation, and communication of textual data.
• Text codes are fundamental elements of computer system, representing
information in a way that computers can process.
For example
• The letter 'A' is represented in binary as 01000001 in the ASCII encoding
scheme.
 COMMON TEXT ENCODING
STANDARDS
Several text encoding standards exist to accommodate different languages, scripts, and
technological requirements. Key standards include:

1) ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange)

Introduced in 1963, ASCII was the first widely adopted text code. Uses 7 bits to
represent 128 characters, including:
• Uppercase and lowercase English letters.
• Digits (0-9).
• Punctuation marks.
• Control characters (e.g., newline, tab).

Example
• 'A' = 65 (Decimal) = 01000001 (Binary).
 COMMON TEXT ENCODING
STANDARDS
2) Extended ASCII
• Extended ASCII is an 8-bit character encoding standard that builds upon the
original ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange)
encoding. While the original ASCII uses 7 bits to represent 128 characters,
Extended ASCII utilizes 8 bits, allowing for 256 possible characters.
• This expansion includes additional symbols, characters, and accents not
found in the original ASCII set.
• Adds support for accented characters and special symbols used in European
languages.
 COMMON TEXT ENCODING
STANDARDS
3) Unicode

• Unicode is a comprehensive standard designed to represent all characters from all writing
systems.

• The Unicode Worldwide Character Standard provides up to four bytes (32 bits) to
represent each letter; number, or symbol.

• With four bytes, enough Unicode codes can be created to represent more than 4 billion
different characters or symbols.

• Encodings include:

1. UTF-8: Variable-length encoding using 1 to 4 bytes. Backward-compatible with ASCII.

2. UTF-16: Uses 2 or 4 bytes for each character.

3. UTF-32: Fixed-length encoding with 4 bytes per character.

 COMMON TEXT ENCODING
STANDARDS
4) EBCDIC (Extended Binary Coded Decimal
Interchange Code)
• EBCDIC is a character encoding system developed by IBM.
• It is primarily used in IBM mainframe and midrange computer system.
• Unlike ASCII, which is widely used today , EBCDIC has a different
arrangement 0f character codes and is not compatible with ASCII.
 COMPUTER`S WAY OF
REPRESENTING DATA
Computers represent data in various ways to store, process, and
transmit information efficiently. Here are the primary methods:
1) Binary System
The most fundamental way computers represent data is
through the binary system, which uses only two digits, 0 and 1.
Each digit is called a bit, and a group of 8 bits forms a byte. For
example, the binary number 1010 represents the decimal number
10.
 2) NUMBER SYSTEM

Decimal
The standard number system we use daily, based on 10 digits (0-9).
Hexadecimal
Uses 16 symbols (0-9 & A-F) and it is often used in computing for its
compact representation of binary data.
Octal
Uses 8 digits (0-7) and is less common but still used in some
computing contexts.
3) TEXT REPRESENTATION
ASCII
The American Standard Code for Information
interchange (ASCII) uses 7 or 8 bits to represent characters .
For example, the letter `A` is represented by the binary
numbers 01000001.
Unicode
Unicode extend ASCII and uses up to 32 bits to
represent characters, allowing for a much larger set of
symbols, including character from various languages.
4) IMAGE REPRESENTATION
Pixels
Images are made up of tiny dots called pixels. Each pixel’s color is
represented by a combination of binary values for red, green, and blue
(RGB).
Resolution
The quality of an image is determined by its resolution, which is
the number of pixels in the image.
5) SOUND REPRESENTATION
Sampling
Sound is represented by sampling the audio signal at regular
intervals and converting these samples into binary numbers.
Bit Depth:
The bit depth determines the number of bits used for each
sample, affecting the sound quality.
6) VIDEO REPRESENTATION
Frames
Videos are sequences of images (frames) displayed rapidly to
create the illusion of motion. Each frame is represented similarly to an
image.
Compression
Videos often use compression techniques to reduce file size while
maintaining quality.
CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)
• A CPU (Central Processing Unit) is the primary component of a computer
that acts as its “control center” and performs most of the processing tasks.
• Often referred to as the "brain" of the computer, the CPU executes instructions
from programs and carries out arithmetic, logical, control, and input/output
operations.
• The CPU, also referred to as the “central” or “main” processor, is a complex
set of electronic circuitry that runs the machine's operating system and apps.
• CPU is a small but mighty computer chip found on top of the motherboard on pc.
 KEY CHARACTERISTICS OF CPU
• Cores:

Modern CPUs have multiple cores, allowing them to process multiple tasks simultaneously (e.g., dual-core,
quad-core).

• Clock Speed:

Measured in GHz, it indicates how many cycles the CPU can perform per second. Higher speeds generally
mean faster performance.

• Cache:

A small amount of high-speed memory within the CPU for storing frequently accessed data and instructions.

• Architecture:

Defines how the CPU is designed and interacts with other components (e.g., x86, ARM).

• Threads

Virtual cores that enable better multitasking by handling multiple processes per core
 HOW CPU WORKS
The working of a CPU (Central Processing Unit) involves executing
instructions in a systematic process known as the fetch-decode-execute cycle.
This cycle is repeated continuously for each instruction until the task is
completed. Below is a detailed explanation of how the CPU works:
a) Fetch:
• The CPU retrieves the next instruction from the system’s memory (RAM).
• The address of the instruction is provided by the program counter (PC), which
keeps track of the instruction sequence.
• The fetched instruction is stored temporarily in the instruction register (IR).
 HOW CPU WORKS
b) Decode
• The CPU's control unit (CU) interprets the fetched instruction.
• It determines what actions are required (e.g., arithmetic, logical operation, data transfer).
• The CPU identifies the necessary resources, such as registers or arithmetic logic unit (ALU),
to execute the instruction.
c)Execute
• The decoded instruction is executed by the appropriate component, such as the ALU for
calculations or logical operations.
• Data may be moved between the CPU and memory or other components.
• The result of the operation is stored either in a register or back in memory.
 HOW CPU WORKS
d) Store (if applicable)
• The result of the execution may be written back to memory or a register for
further processing or output.
• The program counter is updated to point to the next instruction.
 COMPONENTS OF CPU
1) Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU
• The Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) is a fundamental component of the
Central Processing Unit (CPU) that performs arithmetic (addition ,
subtraction ,multiplication ,division) and logical (AND, OR, NOT, XOR)
operations.
• It is responsible for executing the fundamental calculations and
decision-making operations required by programs.
 COMPONENTS OF CPU
2) Control Unit (CU)
• The Control Unit (CU) is a fundamental component of the Central
Processing Unit (CPU) in a computer.

• It acts as the orchestrator of the CPU, directing its operations and

ensuring that instructions are carried out in the correct sequence.
• The CU manages the flow of data between the CPU, memory, and
input/output devices.
 COMPONENTS OF CPU
3) Registers
• Registers in a CPU are small, high-speed storage units located within
the processor.
• They are used to temporarily store data, instructions, and addresses
that the CPU needs during its operations.
• Registers are the fastest type of memory in a computer and play a
crucial role in the execution of instructions.
 COMPONENTS OF CPU
4) Buses:
Buses are the pathways for transmitting data, addresses, and
control signals between the CPU and other components.

Types of Buses:
• Data Bus: Transfers data.
• Address Bus: Carries memory addresses.
• Control Bus: Sends control signals.
THANK YOU
ANY QUESTION?