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Radioactivity

RADIOACTIVITY NOTES

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
13 views66 pages

Radioactivity

RADIOACTIVITY NOTES

Uploaded by

levis0kinyua
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PPTX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
You are on page 1/ 66

2015

RADIOACTI
VITY
Comprehensive tutorial
notes
EVAMS GENERAL
POWERPOINT SUPPLIES
1 VERSION
[email protected] WATH ACADEMIC SERVICES
[email protected]
Contents

A INTRODUCTION/CAUSES OF RADIOCTIVITY
Alpha (α) particle
Beta (β) particle
Gamma(y) particle
B .NUCLEAR FISSION AND NUCLEAR FUSSION
C. HALF-LIFE PERIOD AND DECAY CURVES
D .CHEMICAL vs NUCLEAR REACTIONS
E .APPLICATION OF RADIOACTIVITY AND RADIO
ISOTOPES.
F. DANGERS OF RADIOACTIVITY AND RADIO ISOTOPES.
G. COMPREHENSIVE REVISION QUESTIONS
2
A: INTRODUCTION / CAUSES OF
RADIOCTIVITY
Radioactivity is the spontaneous
disintegration/decay of an unstable
nuclide.

A nuclide is an atom with defined mass


number (number of protons and neutrons),
atomic number and definite energy.

3
Radioactivity takes place in the nucleus of
an atom unlike chemical reactions that take
place in the energy levels involving
electrons.
A nuclide is said to be stable if its neutron:
proton ratio is equal to one (n/p = 1)
All nuclide therefore try to attain n/p = 1
by undergoing radioactivity.

4
Examples
•Oxygen nuclide with 168 O has 8 neutrons and 8
protons in the nucleus therefore an n/p = 1 thus stable
and do not decay/disintegrate.
•Chlorine nuclide with 3517 Cl has 18 neutrons and 17
protons in the nucleus therefore an n/p = 1.0588 thus
unstable and decays/disintegrates to try to attain n/p =
1.
Uranium nuclide with 23792 U has 206 neutrons and 92
protons in the nucleus therefore an n/p = 2.2391 thus
more unstable than 23592 U and thus more readily
decays / disintegrates to try to attain n/p = 1.
5
c) Chlorine nuclide with 3717 Cl has 20 neutrons and 17 protons
in the nucleus therefore an n/p = 1.1765 thus more unstable
than 3517 Cl and thus more readily decays / disintegrates to try
to attain n/p = 1.

d)Uranium nuclide with 23592 U has 143 neutrons and 92


protons in the nucleus therefore an n/p = 1.5543 thus more
stable than 237 92U but also readily decays / disintegrates to
try to attain n/p = 1.

All unstable nuclides naturally try to attain nuclear


stability with the production of:

6
•alpha(α) particle decay
The alpha (α) particle has the following main characteristic:

i)is positively charged(like protons)


ii) has mass number 4 and atomic number 2 therefore equal to
a charged Helium atom ( 42He2+)
iii) have very low penetrating power and thus can be
stopped /blocked/shielded by a thin sheet of paper.
iv) have high ionizing power thus cause a lot of damage to
living cells.
v) a nuclide undergoing α-decay has its mass number reduced
by 4 and its atomic number reduced by 2
7
210
84
Pb -> 206 82 Pb + 4
2
He 2+

226
88
Ra -> 222
86
Rn + 4
2
He 2+

238
92
U -> 234
90
Th + 4
2
He 2+

238
92 U -> 230
88 Ra + 2 4
2He
2+

210
84 U -> 190
74 W + 10
α
8
b)Beta (β) particle decay

The Beta (β) particle has the following main characteristic:


i)is negatively charged(like electrons)
ii)has no mass number and atomic number negative one(-1)
therefore equal to a fast moving electron (0 -1e)
iii) have medium penetrating power and thus can be
stopped /blocked/shielded by a thin sheet of aluminium foil.
iv) have medium ionizing power thus cause less damage to
living cells than the α particle.
v) a nuclide undergoing β -decay has its mass number remain
the same and its atomic number increase by 1
9
Examples of beta (β) decay
1.2311Na -> 23
12
Mg + 0
-1
e

2. 23490Th -> 234


91
Pa + 0
-1
e

3. 20770Y -> 207


82
Pb + 30 -1e

4. 146 C -> 14
7
N + 0
-1
e

5. 10 n -> 1
1
H + 0
-1
e
10
6. 411H -> 4
2
He + 2 0 -1e

7. 228
88
Ra -> 228
90
Th + 2 β

8. 232
90
Th -> 212
82
Pb+ 2 β + 5α

9. 23892U -> 226


88
Ra+ 2 β + 3α

10. 21884Po -> 206


82
Pb+ 4β + 3α
11
•Gamma (y) particle decay
The gamma (y) particle has the following main characteristic:
i)is neither negatively charged(like electrons/beta) nor
positively charged(like protons/alpha) therefore neutral.
ii)has no mass number and atomic number therefore equal to
electromagnetic waves.
iii) have very high penetrating power and thus can be stopped
/blocked/shielded by a thick block of lead..
iv) have very low ionizing power thus cause less damage to
living cells unless on prolonged exposure..
v) a nuclide undergoing y -decay has its mass number and its
atomic number remain the same.
12
Examples of gamma (y) decay

•3717Cl -> 37
17
Cl + y
•146C -> 14
6
C + y

The sketch diagram below shows the


penetrating power of the radiations
from a radioactive nuclide.
13
radioactive nuclide sheet of paper aluminium foil thick block of lead
(radiation source) (block α-rays) (block β-rays) block y-rays)

α-rays β-rays y-rays

The sketch diagram below illustrates the effect


of electric /magnetic field on the three radiations
from a radioactive nuclide
Radioactive source α-particle (slightly
Magnetic deflected to –ve
/electric field because heaviest)
- ve
y-particle
deflected
+ve to –ve or +ve
because it has
no charge)

β-ray deflected most to


+ve ; is lightest)

15
Radioactive disintegration/decay naturally
produces the stable 20682Pb nuclide /isotope
of lead.

Below is the 238 92 U natural decay series.

16
238
92
U 234
90
T 234
91
Pa 234
92
U

218
84
Po 222
86
Rn 2226
88
Ra 230
90
Th

234
82
Pb 214
83
Bi 214
84
Po 210
82
Pb

206
82
Pb 210
84
Po 210
83
Bi

17
B:NUCLEAR FISSION AND
NUCLEAR FUSSION

Radioactive disintegration/decay can be


initiated in an industrial laboratory through
two chemical methods:
a) nuclear fission
b) nuclear fission.

18
a)Nuclear fission
Nuclear fission is the process which a fast
moving neutron bombards /hits /knocks a
heavy unstable nuclide releasing lighter
nuclide, three daughter neutrons and a
large quantity of energy.
Nuclear fission is the basic chemistry
behind nuclear bombs made in the nuclear
reactors.
19
The three daughter neutrons
becomes again fast moving neutron
bombarding / hitting /knocking a
heavy unstable nuclide releasing
lighter nuclides, three more
daughter neutrons each and a larger
quantity of energy setting of a chain
reaction
20
Examples of nuclear equations
showing nuclear fission
1
0
n + 235
92
U -> 90
38
Sr + 144
54
Xe +3 1
0
n + Energy (-∆H)

1
0
n + 27
13
Al -> 28
13
Al + y

1
0
n + 27
13
Al -> 24
11
Na + 4
2
He (α)

1
0
n + 14
7
N -> 14
6
C + 1
1
H

1
0
n + 1
1
H -> 2
1
H + y

1
0
n + 235
92
U -> 95
42
Mo + 139
57
La + 1
0
n + y
21
b) Nuclear fussion
Nuclear fusion is the process which smaller nuclides join
together to form larger / heavier nuclides and releasing a
large quantity of energy.
Very high temperatures and pressure is required to overcome
the repulsion between the atoms.
Nuclear fusion is the basic chemistry behind solar/sun
radiation.
Two daughter atoms/nuclides of Hydrogen fuse/join to form
Helium atom/nuclide on the surface of the sun releasing large
quantity of energy in form of heat and light.

22
2
1
H + 2
1
H -> 4
2
He + 1
0
n

•21H + 1
1
H -> 3
2
He

•21H + 2
1
H -> 3
1
H + 1
1
H

• 4 1
1
H -> 4
2
He + 2 0-1 e

•147H + 4
2
He -> 17
8
O + 1
1
H
23
C: HALF LIFE PERIOD (t1/2)
The half-life period is the time taken for a
radioactive nuclide to spontaneously decay/
disintegrate to half its original mass/
amount.
It is usually denoted t 1/2.
The rate of radioactive nuclide
disintegration/decay is constant for each
nuclide.
24
The table below shows the half-life period
of some elements.
Element/Nuclide Half-life period(t 1/2)
238
92 U 4.5 x 10 9
years
14
6 C 5600 years
229
88 Ra 1620 years
35
15 P 14 days
210
84 Po 0.0002 seconds
25
The half-life period is determined by using
a Geiger-Muller counter (GM tube)
.A GM tube is connected to ratemeter that
records the count-rates per unit time.
This is the rate of decay/ disintegration of
the nuclide.
If the count-rates per unit time fall by half,
then the time taken for this fall is the half-
life period.
26
Examples
•A radioactive substance gave a
count of 240 counts per minute
but after 6 hours the count rate
were 30 counts per minute.
Calculate the half-life period of
the substance.
27
If t 1/2 = x

then 240 --x-->120 –x-->60 –x--->30


From 240 to 30 =3x =6 hours
=>x = t 1/2 = ( 6 / 3 )
= 2 hours

28
b) The count rate of a nuclide
fell from 200 counts per second
to 12.5 counts per second in 120
minutes.
Calculate the half-life period of
the nuclide.
29
If t 1/2 =x
then
200 --x-->100 –x-->50 –x--->25 –x--->12.5
From 200 to 12.5 =4x =120 minutes
=>x = t 1/2 = ( 120 / 4 )
= 30 minutes

30
c) After 6 hours the count
rate of a nuclide fell from
240 counts per second to 15
counts per second on the GM
tube. Calculate the half-life
period of the nuclide.
31
If t /2 = x
1

then 240 --x-->120 –x-->60 –x---


>30 –x--->15
From 240 to 15 =4x =6 hours
=>x = t 1/2 = ( 6 / 4 )= 1.5 hours

32
d) Calculate the mass of nitrogen-13
that remain from 2 grams after 6
half-lifes if the half-life period of
nitrogen-13 is 10 minutes.

33 [email protected]
If t 1/2 = x then:

2 --x-->1 –2x-->0.5 –3x--->0.25 –4x---


>0.125–5x--->0.0625–5x--->0.03125

After the 6th half life 0.03125 g of


nitrogen-13 remain

34
e) What fraction of a gas
remains after 1hour if its
half-life period is 20
months?

35
If t 1/2 = x then:
then 60 /20 = 3x
1 --x--> /2 –2x--> /4 –3x--->
1 1

1
/8

After the 3 half-life /8 of the


rd 1

gas remain
36
f) 348 grams of a nuclide A
was reduced 43.5 grams after
270days.Determine the half-
life period of the nuclide.

37
If t 1/2 = x then:

348 --x-->174 –2x-->87 –3x---


>43.5

From 348 to 43.5=3x =270days


=>x = t 1/2 = ( 270 / 3 )
= 90 days
38
g) How old is an Egyptian
Pharaoh in a tomb with
2grams of C if the normal
14

14
C in a present tomb is
16grams.The half-life period
of C is 5600years.
14

39
If t /2 = x = 5600 years then:
1

16 --x-->8 –2x-->4 –3x--->2

3x = ( 3 x 5600 )
= 16800years

40
f) 100 grams of a radioactive
isotope was reduced 12.5
grams after
81days.Determine the half-
life period of the isotope.
41
If t 1/2 = x then:
100 --x-->50 –2x-->25 –3x--->12.5

From 100 to 12.5=3x =81days


=>x = t 1/2
= ( 81 / 3 )
= 27 days

42
A graph of activity against time is
called decay curve.
A decay curve can be used to
determine the half-life period of
an isotope since activity decrease
at equal time interval to half the
original

43
i)From the graph show and determine the
(

half-life period of the isotope.


From the graph t 1/2 changes in activity from:

( 100 – 50 ) => ( 20 – 0 ) = 20 minutes


( 50 – 25 ) => ( 40 – 20 ) = 20 minutes

Thus t ½ = 20 minutes

44
(ii)Why does the graph
tend to ‘O’?

Smaller particle/s will


disintegrate /decay to
half its original.
45
D: CHEMICAL vs NUCLEAR REACTIONS

Nuclear and chemical reaction has the following


similarities:
(i)-both involve the subatomic particles; electrons,
protons and neutrons in an atom
(ii)-both involve the subatomic particles trying
to make the atom more stable.
(iii)-Some for of energy transfer/release/absorb
from/to the environment take place.

46
Nuclear and chemical reaction has the
following differences:
(i) Nuclear reactions mainly involve
protons and neutrons in an atom.
Chemical reactions mainly involve
electrons in an atom.
(ii) Nuclear reactions mainly involve
formation of an atom of a new element.
Chemical reactions do not form new
elements
47
(iii) Nuclear reactions mainly involve
evolution/production of large quantity of
heat/energy.
Chemical reactions produce or absorb small
quantity of heat/energy.
(iv)Nuclear reactions are accompanied by a loss in
mass/mass defect hence does not obey the law of
conservation of matter.
Chemical reactions are not accompanied by a loss in
mass/mass defect hence obey the law of conservation
of matter.
48
(v)The rate of decay/ disintegration of
the nuclide is independent of physical
conditions
(temperature/pressure/purity/particle
size)
The rate of a chemical reaction is
dependent on physical conditions
(temperature/pressure/purity/particle
size/surface area)
49
D: APPLICATION AND USES
OF RADIOCTIVITY.
The following are some of the fields that
apply and use radioisotopes;
a)Medicine: -Treatment of cancer to kill
malignant tumors through radiotherapy.
-Sterilizing hospital /surgical instruments
/equipments by exposing them to gamma
radiation.
50
b) Agriculture:
If a plant or animal if fed with
radioisotope, the metabolic processes of
the plant/animal is better understood by
tracing the route of the radioisotope.
c) Food preservation:
X-rays are used to kill bacteria in tinned
food to last for a long time.

51
d) Chemistry:
To study mechanisms of a chemical reaction,
one reactant is replaced in its structure by a
radioisotope e.g.

During esterification the ‘O’ joining the ester


was discovered comes from the alkanol and not
alkanoic acid.
During photosynthesis the ‘O’ released was
discovered comes from water.
52
e) Dating rocks/fossils:
The quantity of 14C in living things
(plants/animals) is constant.
When they die the fixed mass of 14C is
trapped in the cells and continues to
decay/disintegrate.
The half-life period of 14C is 5600 years .
Comparing the mass of 14C in living and
dead cells, the age of the dead can be
determined.
53
E: DANGERS OF RADIOCTIVITY.
All rays emitted by radioactive isotopes have
ionizing effect of changing the genetic make up
of living cells.
Exposure to theses radiations causes
chromosomal and /or genetic mutation in living
cells.
Living things should therefore not be exposed
for a long time to radioactive substances.

54
One of the main uses of radiacive
isotopes is in generation of large cheap
electricity in nuclear reactors.
Those who work in these reactors must
wear protective devises made of thick
glass or lead sheet.
Accidental leakages of radiations usually
occur:..

55
In 1986 the Nuclear reactor
at Chernobyl in Russia had
a major explosion that
emitted poisonous nuclear
material that caused
immediate environmental
disaster.
56
In 2011, an earthquake in Japan caused a
nuclear reactor to leak and release
poisonous radioactive waste into the Indian
Ocean.
The immediate and long term effects of
exposure to these poisonous radioactive
waste on human being is of major concern
to all environmentalists.

57
World wide various treaties control
the manufacture, disposal and usage
of radioisotopes which many nations
have ratified under the United
Nations Organization (UNO) to
ensure safety of the environment.

58
5.

The figure below shows the behaviour of emissions


by a radioactive isotope x. Use it to answer the
question follow

59
(a) Explain why isotope X emits radiations.
(1mk)
-is unstable //has n/p ratio greater/less than one

(b) Name the radiation labeled T (1mk)


alpha particle

(c) Arrange the radiations labeled P and T in the increasing


order of ability to be deflected by an electric filed.
(1mk)

T -> P

60
4. a) Calculate the mass and atomic numbers of element B
formed after 21280 X has emitted three beta particles, one
gamma ray and two alpha particles.
Mass number = 212 –(0 beta+ o gamma + (2 x 4 ) alpha
= 204
Atomic number = 80 – (-1 x3) beta + 0 gamma + (2 x 2 )
alpha =79

b)Write a balanced nuclear equations for the decay of 212


80
X to B using the information in 4(a) above.
212
80
X -> 204
79
B + 2 4
2
He + 3 0
-1
e + y

61
Identify the type of radiation emitted from the
following nuclear equations.
(i) 146 C -> 147N + …β ……

(ii) 11 H + 1
0
n -> 2
H + ……y…
1

(iii) 235
92
U -> 95
42
Mo + 139
57
La + 1
0
n + 7β

(iv)23892 U -> 234


Th + … α …
90

(v) 14
6
C + 1
1
H -> 15
N + …y…
7

62
. X grams of a radioactive isotope takes 100
days to disintegrate to 20 grams. If the half-life
period isotope is 25 days, calculate the initial
mass X of the radio isotope.

Number of half-lifes = ( 100 / 25 )


= 4
20g -----> 40g ----> 80g-----> 160g -----> 320g

Original mass X = 320g

63
a)Radium has a half-life of 1620 years.
(i)What is half-life?

The half-life period is the time taken for


a radioactive nuclide to spontaneously
decay/ disintegrate to half its original
mass/ amount.

64
b)If one milligram of radium contains 2.68 x 10 18
atoms ,how many atoms disintegrate during 3240 years.
Number of half-lifes = ( 3240 / 1620 ) = 2
1 mg ---1620---> 0.5mg ---1620----> 0.25mg
If 1mg -> 2.68 x 1018 atoms
Then 0.25 mg -> ( 0.25 x 2.68 x 1018 ) = 6.7 x 1017
Number of atoms remaining = 6.7 x 1017
Number of atoms disintegrated =
(2.68 x 1018 - 6.7 x 1017 )
= 2.01 x 1018

65 [email protected]
THE END
© EVAMS GENERAL SUPPLIES

66

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