DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE & ENGINEERING

Computer Networks

(PC 602 CS)

Year & Section (VI Semester CSE A & B)
Unit I

SS Jabeen
Assistant Professor
CSE Dept.
ISLEC
01/23/2025 SSJ 1
 Unit I
Data communication Techniques for Bandwidth utilization:
Components: • Line configuration
• Representation of data • Multiplexing - Frequency division
communication • Time division and Wave division
• Flow of Networks • Asynchronous and Synchronous
transmission
• Layered architecture
• XDSL
• OSI and TCP/IP model
• Introduction to Wired and Wireless LAN
• Transmission Media.

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 Representation of Data
Communication

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• Introduction
• Data Communication
• Data Representation

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 Introduction
The term telecommunication means communication at a distance.
The word data refers to information presented in whatever form is
agreed upon by the parties creating and using the data.

01/23/2025 SSJ
 Data Communication
• Data Communication is defined as exchange of data
between two devices via some form of transmission media
such as a cable, wire or it can be air or vacuum also.
• For occurrence of data communication, communicating
devices must be a part of communication system made up
of a combination of hardware or software devices and
programs.

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 The effectiveness of a data communication system depends on
four fundamental characteristics:
i. Delivery
ii. Accuracy
iii. Timeliness
iv. Jitter

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 Data Communication System Components

There are mainly five components of a data communication

system:
1. Message
2. Sender
3. Receiver
4. Transmission Medium
5. Protocol

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 Figure 1.1 Five Components of Data Communication

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Data Representation

• Text
• Numbers
• Images
• Audio
• Video

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 Flow of Networks

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Figure 1.2 Data flow (simplex, half-duplex, and full-duplex)
Networks

•A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes)

connected by communication links. A node can be a computer,
printer, or any other device capable of sending and/or
receiving data generated by other nodes on the network. A link
can be a cable, air, optical fiber, or any medium which can
transport a signal carrying information.
Network Criteria
• Performance
• Depends on Network Elements
• Measured in terms of Delay and Throughput

• Reliability
• Failure rate
of network components
• Measured in terms of availability/robustness

• Security
• Data protection against corruption/loss of data due to:
• Errors
• Malicious users
Physical Structures

• Type of Connection
• Point to Point - singletransmitter and receiver
• Multipoint - multiple recipients of single transmission

• Physical Topology
• Connection of devices
• Type of transmission - unicast, multicast, broadcast
Figure 1.3 Types of connections: point-to-point and multipoint
Figure 1.4 Categories of topology
Figure 1.5 A fully connected mesh topology (five devices)
Figure 1.6 A star topology connecting four stations
Figure 1.7 A bus topology connecting three stations
Figure 1.8 A ring topology connecting six stations
Figure 1.9 A hybrid topology: a star backbone with three bus networks
Categories of Networks
• Local Area Networks (LANs)
• Short distances
• Designed to provide local interconnectivity
• Wide Area Networks (WANs)
• Long distances
• Provide connectivity over large areas
• Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs)
• Provide connectivity over areas such as a city, a campus
Figure 1.10 An isolated LAN connecting 12 computers to a hub in a closet
Figure 1.11 WANs: a switched WAN and a point-to-point WAN
Figure 1.12 A heterogeneous network made of four WANs and two LANs
 Layered Architecture

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LAYERED TASKS
We use the concept of layers in our daily life. As an
example, let us consider two friends who communicate
through postal mail. The process of sending a letter to a
friend would be complex if there were no services
available from the post office.
Figure 1.13 Tasks involved in sending a letter
THE NEED FOR A PROTOCOL ARCHITECTURE

Typical tasks to be performed are as follow:

1. The source system must either activate the direct data communication path or
inform the communication network of the identity of the desired destination
system.
2. The source system must ascertain that the destination system is prepared to
receive data.
3. The file transfer application on the source system must ascertain that the file
management program on the destination system is prepared to accept and
store the file for this particular user.
4. If the file formats used on the two systems are different, one or the other
system must perform a format translation function.
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 OSI Model

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THE OSI MODEL

Established in 1947, the International Standards

Organization (ISO) is a multinational body dedicated to
worldwide agreement on international standards. An ISO
standard that covers all aspects of network
communications is the Open Systems Interconnection
(OSI) model. It was first introduced in the late 1970s.
Note

ISO is the organization.

OSI is the model.
Figure 1.14 Seven layers of the OSI model
Figure 1.15 The interaction between layers in the OSI model
Figure 1.16 An exchange using the OSI model
The OSI model layers are briefly discussed:
1. Physical
2. Data Link
3. Network
4. Transport
5. Session
6. Presentation
7. Application

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Figure 1.17 Physical layer
Note

The physical layer is responsible for movements of

individual bits from one hop (node) to the next.
Figure 1.18 Data link layer
Note

The data link layer is responsible for moving

frames from one hop (node) to the next.
 Figure 1.19 Hop-to-hop delivery

2.42
Figure 1.20 Network layer
Note

The network layer is responsible for the

delivery of individual packets from
the source host to the destination host.
Figure 1.21 Source-to-destination delivery
Figure 1.22 Transport layer
Note

The transport layer is responsible for the delivery

of a message from one process to another.
Figure 1.23 Reliable process-to-process delivery of a message
Figure 1.24 Session layer
Note

The session layer is responsible for dialog

control and synchronization.
Figure 1.25 Presentation layer
Note

The presentation layer is responsible for

translation, compression, and encryption.
Figure 1.26 Application layer
Note

The application layer is responsible for

providing services to the user.
Figure 1.27 Summary of layers
 TCP/IP Model

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 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

The layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not exactly

match those in the OSI model. The original TCP/IP
protocol suite was defined as having four layers: host-to-
network, internet, transport, and application. However,
when TCP/IP is compared to OSI, we can say that the
TCP/IP protocol suite is made of five layers: physical,
data link, network, transport, and application.
Figure 1.28 TCP/IP and OSI model
 Transmission Media

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 Overview
• Guided - wire / optical fiber
• Unguided - wireless
• Characteristics and quality determined by medium and signal
• in unguided media - bandwidth produced by the antenna is more
important
• in guided media - medium is more important

• Key concerns are data rate and distance

 Design Factors
• Bandwidth
• Higher bandwidth gives higher data rate
• Transmission impairments
• Eg. attenuation

• Interference
• Number of receivers in guided media
• More receivers introduces more attenuation
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Transmission Characteristics of
Guided Media
Frequency Typical Typical Repeater
Range Attenuatio Delay Spacing
Twisted pair 0 to 3.5 kHz n
0.2 dB/km 50 µs/km 2 km
(with @ 1 kHz
loading)
Twisted 0 to 1 MHz 0.7 dB/km 5 µs/km 2 km
pairs (multi- @ 1 kHz
pair cables)
Coaxial 0 to 500 7 dB/km @ 4 µs/km 1 to 9 km
cable MHz 10 MHz
Optical fiber 186 to 370 0.2 to 0.5 5 µs/km 40 km
THz dB/km
Twisted Pair
 Twisted Pair - Transmission
Characteristics
• Analog
• needs amplifiers every 5km to 6km
• Digital
• can useeither analog or digital signals
• needs a repeater every 2-3km

• Limited distance
• Limited bandwidth (1MHz)
• Limited data rate (100MHz)
• Susceptible to interference and noise
 Unshielded vs Shielded TP
• Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
• ordinary telephone wire
• cheapest
• easiest to install
• suffers from external EM interference

• Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)

• metal braid or sheathing that reduces interference
• more expensive
• harder to handle (thick, heavy)

• In a variety of categories - see EIA-568

 UTP Categories
Category 3 Category 5 Category 5E Category 6 Category 7
Class C Class D Class E Class F
Bandwidth 16 MHz 100 MHz 100 MHz 200 MHz 600 MHz
Cable Type UTP UTP/FTP UTP/FTP UTP/FTP SSTP
Link Cost 0.7 1 1.2 1.5 2.2
(Cat 5 =1)
 Comparison of Shielded and
Unshielded Twisted Pair
Attenuation (dB per 100 m) Near-end Crosstalk (dB)
Frequency Category 3 Category 5 Category 3 Category 5
(MHz) UTP UTP 150-ohm STP UTP UTP 150-ohm STP
1 2.6 2.0 1.1 41 62 58
4 5.6 4.1 2.2 32 53 58
16 13.1 8.2 4.4 23 44 50.4
25 — 10.4 6.2 — 41 47.5
100 — 22.0 12.3 — 32 38.5
300 — — 21.4 — — 31.3
 Near End Crosstalk
• Coupling of signal from one pair to another
• Occurs when transmit signal entering the link couples back to
receiving pair
• ie. near transmitted signal is picked up by near receiving pair
Coaxial Cable
 Coaxial Cable - Transmission
Characteristics
• superior frequency characteristics to TP
• performance limited by attenuation & noise
• analog signals
• amplifiers every few km
• closer if higher frequency
• up to 500MHz

• digital signals
• repeater every1km
• closer for higher data rates
Optical Fiber
 Optical Fiber - Benefits
• Greater capacity
• data rates of hundreds of Gbps
• Smaller size & weight
• Lower attenuation
• Electromagnetic isolation
• Greater repeater spacing
• 10s of km at least
 Optical Fiber - Transmission
Characteristics
• Uses total internal reflection to transmit light
• effectively acts as wave guide for 1014 to 1015 Hz
• Can use several different light sources
• Light Emitting Diode (LED)
• cheaper, wider operating temp range, lasts longer
• Injection Laser Diode (ILD)
• more efficient, has greater data rate

• Relation of wavelength, type & data rate

Optical Fiber Transmission Modes
Wireless Transmission Frequencies
• 2GHz to 40GHz
• microwave
• highly directional
• point to point
• satellite

• 30MHz to 1GHz
• omnidirectional
• broadcast radio
• 3 x 1011 to 2 x 1014
• infrared
• local
 Antennas
• Electrical conductor used to radiate or collect electromagnetic energy
• Transmission antenna
• Radio frequency energy from transmitter
• Converted to electromagnetic energy by antenna
• Radiated into surrounding environment

• Reception antenna
• Electromagnetic energy impinging on antenna
• Converted to radio frequency electrical energy
• Fed to receiver

• Same antenna is often used for both purposes

 Terrestrial Microwave
• Used for long haul telecommunications
• And short point-to-point links
• Requires fewer repeaters but line of sight
• Use a parabolic dish to focus a narrow beam onto a receiver antenna
• 1-40ghz frequencies
• Higher frequencies give higher data rates
• Main source of loss is attenuation
• Distance, rainfall

• Also interference
 Satellite Microwave
• Satellite is relay station
• Receives on one frequency, amplifies or repeats signal and
transmits on another frequency
• Eg. Uplink 5.925-6.425 ghz & downlink 3.7-4.2 ghz

• Typically requires geo-stationary orbit

• Height of 35,784km
• Spaced at least 3-4° apart
• Typical uses
• Television
• Long distance telephone
• Private business networks
• Global positioning
Satellite Point to Point Link
Satellite Broadcast Link
 Broadcast Radio
• Radio is 3khz to 300ghz
• Use broadcast radio, 30mhz - 1ghz, for:
• FM radio
• UHF and VHF television
• Is omnidirectional
• Still need line of sight
• Suffers from multipath interference
• Reflections from land, water, other objects
Infrared
• Modulate noncoherent infrared light
• End line of sight (or reflection)
• Are blocked by walls
• No licenses required
• Typical uses
• TV remote control
• IRD port
 Line Configuration

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 Line Configuration - Topology
• Physical arrangement of stations on medium
• Point to point - two stations
• Suchas between two routers / computers
• Multi point - multiple stations
• Traditionally mainframe computer and terminals
• Now typically a local area network (LAN)
Line Configuration - Topology
 Line Configuration - Duplex
• Classify data exchange as half or full duplex
• Half duplex (two-way alternate)
• Only one station may transmit at a time
• Requires one data path

• Full duplex (two-way simultaneous)

• Simultaneous transmission and reception between two stations
• Requires two data paths
• Separate media or frequencies used for each direction
• Or echo canceling
 Multiplexing

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 Multiplexing
• Multiple links on 1 physical line
• Common on long-haul, high capacity, links
• Have FDM, TDM, STDM alternatives
Frequency Division Multiplexing
FDM
System
Overview
FDM Voiceband Example
Analog Carrier Systems
• Long-distance links use an FDM hierarchy
• AT&T (USA) and ITU-T (international) variants
• Group
• 12 voice channels (4khz each) = 48khz
• In range 60khz to 108khz

• Supergroup
• FDM of 5 group signals supports 60 channels
• On carriers between 420khz and 612 khz

• Mastergroup
• FDM of 10 supergroups supports 600 channels
• So original signal can be modulated many times
Wavelength Division Multiplexing
• FDM with multiple beams of light at different freq
• Carried over optical fiber links
• Commercial systems with 160 channels of 10 gbps
• Lab demo of 256 channels 39.8 gbps

• Architecture similar to other FDM systems

• Multiplexer consolidates laser sources (1550nm) for
transmission over single fiber
• Optical amplifiers amplify all wavelengths
• Demux separates channels at the destination

• Also
have dense wavelength division multiplexing
(DWDM)
Synchronous Time Division
Multiplexing
TDM
System
Overview
TDM Link Control
• No headers and trailers
• Data link control protocols not needed
• Flow control
• Data rate of multiplexed line is fixed
• If one channel receiver can not receive data, the others must
carry on
• Corresponding source must be quenched
• Leaving empty slots

• Error control
• Errors detected & handled on individual channel
Data Link Control on TDM
Framing
• No flag or SYNC chars bracketing TDM frames
• Must still provide synchronizing mechanism between
src and dest clocks
• Added digit framing
• One control bit added to each TDM frame
• Identifiable bit pattern used on control channel
• Eg. Alternating 01010101…unlikely on a data channel
• Compare incoming bit patterns on each channel with known
sync pattern
Pulse Stuffing
• Have problem of synchronizing data sources
• With clocks in different sources drifting
• Alsoissue of data rates from different sources not related
by simple rational number
• Pulse stuffing a common solution
• Have outgoing data rate (excluding framing bits) higher than sum
of incoming rates
• Stuff extra dummy bits or pulses into each incoming signal until it
matches local clock
• Stuffed pulses inserted at fixed locations in frame and removed at
demultiplexer
TDM Example
 Statistical TDM
• In synch TDM many slots are wasted
• Statistical TDM allocates time slots dynamically based
on demand
• Multiplexer scans input lines and collects data until
frame full
• Line data rate lower than aggregate input line rates
• May have problems during peak periods
• Must buffer inputs
Statistical TDM Frame Format
 Cable Modems
• Dedicate two cable TV channels to data transfer
• Each channel shared by number of subscribers, using
statistical TDM
• Downstream
• Cable scheduler delivers data in small packets
• Active subscribers share downstream capacity
• Also allocates upstream time slots to subscribers

• Upstream
• Userrequests timeslots on shared upstream channel
• Headend scheduler notifies subscriber of slots to use
Cable Modem Scheme
 XDSL

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 Asymmetrical Digital Subscriber
Line (ADSL)
• Link between subscriber and network
• Uses currently installed twisted pair cable
• Is asymmetric - bigger downstream than up
• Uses frequency division multiplexing
• Reserve lowest 25khz for voice (POTS)
• Uses echo cancellation or FDM to give two bands

• Has a range of up to 5.5km

ADSL Channel Configuration
 xDSL
• High data rate DSL (HDSL)
• 2B1Q coding on dual twisted pairs
• up to 2Mbps over 3.7km
• Single line DSL
• 2B1Q coding on single twisted pair (residential) with echo
cancelling
• up to 2Mbps over 3.7km

• Very high data rate DSL

• DMT/QAM for very high data rates
• over separate bands for separate services
 Asynchronous &
Synchronous Transmission

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 Data Transmission
• Most digital messages are longer than just a few bits.
• It is neither practical nor economic to transfer all bits of a
long message simultaneously.
• The message is broken into smaller parts and transmitted
sequentially.
• Bit-serial transmission conveys a message one bit at a
time through a channel.
• Each bit represents a part of the message.
 Bit-serial Data Transmission

• The individual bits are then reassembled at the destination

to compose the message.
• In general, one channel will pass only one bit at a time.
• Thus, bit-serial transmission is necessary in data
communications if only a single channel is available.
• Bit-serial transmission is normally just called serial
transmission and is the chosen communications method in
many computer peripherals.
Bit-serial Data Transmission
 Byte-serial Data Transmission
• Byte-serial transmission conveys eight bits at a time through eight
parallel channels.
• Although the raw transfer rate is eight times faster than in bit-serial
transmission, eight channels are needed, and the cost may be as much as
eight times higher to transmit the message.
• When distances are short, both techniques may be feasible and
economic to use parallel channels in return for high data rates.
• The popular Centronics printer interface is a case where byte-serial
transmission is used.
 Byte Transmission
• It is common practice to use a
16-bit wide data bus to transfer
data between a microprocessor
and memory chips.
• This provides the equivalent of
16 parallel channels.
• On the other hand, when
communicating with a timesharing
system over a modem, only a
single channel is available, and
bit-serial transmission is required.
 Synchronization
Two types of transmission:
• Asynchronous
• Synchronous

Asynchronous Transmission
In asynchronous transmission, each character is transmitted
separately with separate synchronization information. This type
of transmission is often used in situation when characters may
be generated at random intervals, such as when a user types at a
terminal. In asynchronous transmission, all of the bits that
comprise a character are framed and then sent as a single
transmission string.
Asynchronous transmission
 Asynchronous Transmission
Start and Stop Bit Framing
The clocks of the transmitter and the receiver are not
continually synchronized.
But the receiver needs to know when the character
begins and ends.
For this reason, the character's bit string is framed
with start and stop bits. The start bit reset the
receiver's clock so that it matches the transmitter's.
The clock only needs to be accurate enough to stay in
sync for the next 8 to 11 ticks. At least one stop bit is
added to mark the end of the character and allow
recognition of the next start bit.
 Asynchronous Transmission

Error Detection
One way to detect errors in asynchronous transmission is to add
an extra bit, called a parity bit, to the end of each character in a
frame.

Summary:
• Uncomplicated and inexpensive but slow and
• Overhead for each character.
 Synchronous Transmission
In some application it is necessary for large blocks of data, such as the
contents of a disk file, to be transmitted. Synchronous transmission is
more efficient method of transmitting large block of data. The data are
usually buffered and transmitted as an entire message or frame. For this
reason, clocks on both sides must maintain synchronization during
transmission. This is accomplished in one of two ways:

1. A separate synchronizing signal, a clock, can be constantly

transmitted
2. Clocking can be included in the data signal
 Synchronous Transmission
Error Detection
Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) is often used in
synchronous transmission. The CRC process subjects the
block of data to an algorithm that computes a result based
on its contents. This result is appended to the block prior to
transmission. On the receiving side, the same algorithm is
used and the result is compared with the CRC field. Any
difference is assumed to mean frame damage during
transmission and retransmission is repeated.
More efficient, higher speed and improved error detection,
But expensive and complex transmitter/receiver circuitry.
 Introduction to Wired &
Wireless LAN

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 Emphasis
Definition of a Local Area Network (LAN)
• Physical and Logical LAN Topologies
• Different Medium Access Control Protocols
• Common LAN Systems
– Ethernet (1st commercially available LAN)
– Token ring
– FDDI (fiber data distributed interface) ring

123
 Introduction
A local area network is a communication network that interconnects a
variety of data communicating devices within a small geographic area
and broadcasts data at
• high data transfer rates
• very low error rates.
(WANs now do this too)
Since the local area network first appeared in the 1970s, its use has
become widespread in commercial and academic environments.

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 Functions of a Local Area Network
• File server - A large storage disk drive that acts as a central storage repository.
• Print server - Provides the authorization to access a particular printer, accept and queue
print jobs, and provides a user access to the print queue to perform administrative duties.
• Interconnection - A LAN can provide an interconnection to other LANs and to wide area
networks.
• Video transfers - High speed LANs are capable of supporting video image and live video
transfers.
• Manufacturing support - LANs can support manufacturing and industrial environments.
• Distributed processing - LANs can support network operating systems which perform the
operations of distributed processing.

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 Advantages of Local Area Networks
• Ability to share hardware and software resources.
• Individual workstation might survive network failure.
• Component and system evolution are possible.
• Support for heterogeneous forms of hardware and software.
• Access to other LANs and WANs (Figure 7-1).
• Private ownership.
• Secure transfers at high speeds with low error rates.

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Disadvantages of Local Area Networks
• Equipment and support can be costly.
• Level of maintenance continues to grow.
• Private ownership?
• Some types of hardware may not interoperate.
• Just because a LAN can support two different kinds of
packages does not mean their data can interchange easily.
• A LAN is only as strong as it weakest link, and there are
many links.

127
 Wireless Topology
• Not really a specific topology since a workstation in a
wireless LAN can be anywhere as long as it is within
transmitting distance to an access point.
• Range varies from 50 to 800 ft with speeds of 2 to 11
Mbps
• Most wireless LANs include a wired LAN backbone
• Usually requires a wireless NIC

128
Wireless Topology – different forms
• Newer IEEE 802.11 and 802.11b (Wi-Fi) standard defines
various forms of wireless LAN connections.
• Speeds up to 11 Mbps with 802.11b standard.
• Workstations reside within a basic service set, while
multiple basic service sets create an extended service set.

129
 Wireless Topology
Acceptable transmission ranges broken up into areas:
1. Basic service set – that surrounding an access point
2. Extended service set – collection of basic service sets
Workstations reside within a basic service set, while multiple
basic service sets create an extended service set.

130
 Wireless Topology
• Two basic components necessary: the client radio, usually
a PC card with an integrated antenna, and the access point
(AP), which is an Ethernet port plus a transceiver.
• The AP acts as a bridge between the wired and wireless
networks and can perform basic routing functions.
• Workstations with client radio cards reside within a basic
service set, while multiple basic service sets create an
extended service set.

131
Single-cell wireless LAN configuration

132
Multiple-cell wireless LAN configuration

133
Ad-hoc configuration for a wireless LAN

134
 Wireless Topology
• With directional antennae designed for point-to-point
transmission (rare), 802.11b can work for more than 10 miles.
• With an omni-directional antenna on a typical AP, range may
drop to as little as 100 feet.
• Distance is inversely proportional to transmission speed - as
speed goes up, distance goes down.

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 Other Wireless Standards
•IEEE 802.11 (older 2 Mbps)
•IEEE 802.11b (11 Mbps, 2.4 GHz)
Also called Wi-Fi (wireless fidelity)
•IEEE 802.11a (54 Mbps, 5 GHz, in 2002)
•IEEE 802.11g (54 Mbps, 2.4 GHz, in 2002)
•HiperLAN/2 (European standard, 54 Mbps in 5 GHz band)

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