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Module4 Lecture 1 2

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15B11CI212 Theoretical Foundations of

Computer Science

Module 4: Algebric Structures


Outline- Algebraic Structures

Binary Operations: semi-group, group; Subgroup: Cosets; Ring; Field; Boolean algebra; Binary
Arithmetic.
Module 4 – Algebraic
structures
Lecture 1
Outline
Binary Operations: semi-group, group
Algebraic structure
Definition: A non-empty set G equipped with one or more binary operations is called
an algebraic structure or an algebraic system.
If ◦ is a binary operation on G, then the algebraic structure is written as (G, ◦).
Example: (N, +), (Q, −), (R, +) are algebraic structures.
Binary operation on a set

The symbols +, ·, ∗, ⊕ etc are used to denote binary operations on a set.

Example 1. Our usual addition + is a binary operation on the


real numbers R.
Example 2. Let M(R) be the set of all matrices with real entries.
The usual matrix addition + is not a binary operation on M(R),
because sometimes we cannot apply the matrix addition when
two matrices have different sizes.
• For a, b ∈ S ⇒ a + b ∈ S ⇒ + is a binary operation
in S.
• For a, b ∈ S ⇒ a · b ∈ S ⇒ · is a binary operation in
S.
• For a, b ∈ S ⇒ a ◦ b ∈ S ⇒ ◦ is a binary operation in
S.
• For a, b ∈ S ⇒ a ∗ b ∈ S ⇒ ∗ is a binary operation
in S.
• This is said to be the closure property of the binary
operation and the set S is said to be closed with
respect to the binary operation.
Binary Operation Properties
• Commutative: ∗ is a binary operation in a set S. If for a, b ∈ S, a ∗ b
= b ∗ a, then ∗ is said to be commutative in S.
• Associative: ∗ is a binary operation in a set S. If for a, b, c ∈ S,
(a∗b)∗c = a∗(b∗c), then ∗ is said to be associative in S.
• Distributive: ◦, ∗ are binary operations in S. If for a, b, c ∈ S, (i) a ◦
(b ∗ c) = (a ◦ b) ∗ (a ◦ c), (ii) (b ∗ c) ◦ a = (b ◦ a) ∗ (c ◦ a), then ◦ is
said to be distributive w.r.t the operation ∗.
Example1 : N is the set of natural numbers.
(i) +, · are binary operations in N, since for a, b ∈ N, a + b ∈ N
and a · b ∈ N. In other words N is said to be closed w.r.t the
operations + and ·.
(ii) +, · are commutative in N, since for a, b ∈ N, a + b = b + a
and a · b = b · a.
(iii) +, · are associative in N, since for a, b, c ∈ N, a + (b + c) = (a
+ b) + c and a · (b · c) = (a · b) · c.
(iv) . is distributive w.r.t the operation + in N, since for a, b, c ∈ N,
a · (b + c) = a · b + a ·c and (b + c) · a = b · a + c · a.
(v) The operations subtraction (−) and division (÷) are not binary
operations in N, since for 3, 5 ∈ N does not imply 3 − 5 ∈ N and
3÷ 5 ∈ N.
Example 2 : A is the set of even integers

(i) +, · are binary operations in A, since for a, b ∈ A, a + b ∈ A and a · b ∈ A.


(i) +, · are commutative in A, since for a, b ∈ A, a + b = b + a and a · b = b ·
a.
(ii) +, · are associative in A, since for a, b, c ∈ A,
a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c and a · (b · c) = (a · b) · c.
(iv) · is distributive w.r.t the operation + in A, since for a, b, c ∈ A, a ·
(b + c) = a · b + a · c and (b + c) · a = b · a + c · a.
Example: Let S be a non-empty set and ◦ be an operation on
S defined by a ◦ b = a for a, b ∈ S. Determine whether ◦ is
commutative and associative in S.
Semi Group
Definition: An algebraic structure (S, ◦) is called a semi group if the binary
operation ◦ is
associative in S.
That is, (S, ◦) is said to be a semi group if
(i) a, b ∈ S ⇒ a ◦ b ∈ S for all a, b ∈ S
(ii) (a ◦ b) ◦ c = a ◦ (b ◦ c) for all a, b, c ∈ S.

Example:
1. (N, +) is a semi group.
For a, b ∈ N ⇒ a + b ∈ N and a, b, c ∈ N ⇒ (a + b)
+ c =a+ (b + c).
2. (Q, −) is not a semi group.
For 5,3/2 , 1 ∈ Q does not imply (5 – 3/2 ) −1 = 5
−(3/2 −1).
3. (R, +) is a semi group.
Example 2
The operation ◦ is defined by a ◦ b = a for all a, b ∈ S. Show that (S, ◦) is a semi group.

Solution:
Let a, b ∈ S ⇒ a ◦ b = a ∈ S.
◦ is a binary operation in S.
Let a, b, c ∈ S, a ◦ (b ◦ c) = a ◦ b = a
(a ◦ b) ◦ c = a ◦ c = a.
⇒ ◦ is associative in S.
Hence, (S, ◦) is a semi group.
Ex. Let (Z, *) be an algebraic structure, where Z is the set
of integers
and the operation * is defined by n * m = maximum of (n,
m).
Show that (Z, *) is a semi group.
Groups

Example 1: (Z, +) is a group where Z denote the set of


integers.
Example 2: (R, +) is a group where R denote the set of
real numbers
Example
The set Z of integers is a group w.r.t. usual addition.
(i). For a, b ∈ Z ⇒ a + b ∈ Z
(ii). For a, b, c ∈ Z, (a + b) + c = a + (b + c)
(iii). 0 ∈ Z such that 0 + a = a + 0 = a for each a ∈ G
• hence, 0 is the identity element in Z.
(iv). For a ∈ Z, there exists −a ∈ Z such that a + (−a) = (−a) + a = 0.
Hence, −a is the inverse of a.
• (Z, +) is a group.
Definitions


Show that set of all non zero real numbers is a group with respect to
multiplication .
Ex: Show that set of all real numbers ‘R’ is not a group with
respect to multiplication.
Show that the set of all positive rational numbers forms an
abelian group under the composition * defined by a * b = (ab)/2
.
Example. In a group (G, *) , Prove that the identity
element is unique.

Exercise. In a group (G, *) , Prove that the inverse of any


element is unique.

Exercise. If every element of a group is its own inverse, then


show that the group must be abelian
Addition modulo m where m is fixed integer.
If a and b are any two integers, and r is the least non-negative
reminder obtained by dividing the ordinary sum of a and b by m, then
the addition modulo m of a and b is r symbolically
a +m b = r, 0 ≤ r < m.
Example: 20 +6 5 = 1, when 20+5 is divided by 6 , the remainder
would be 1
Example: −15 +5 3 = 3 , when -12 divided by 5 , the remainder would
be 3
Multiplication modulo p
If a and b are any two integers, and r is the least non-negative
reminder obtained by dividing the ordinary product of a and b by p,
then the Multiplication modulo p of a and b is r symbolically
a ×p b = r, 0 ≤ r < p.
Example:
Show that the set G= {1, 2, 3, 4} is an abelian with respect to multiplication modulo 5.

Solution: The composition table for multiplication


modulo 5 is
From the above table, it is clear that G is closed with
respect to the operation ×5 and the binary
composition ×5 is associative;
1 is the identity element.
Each element in G has a inverse.
1 is its own inverse
2 is the inverse of 3
3 is the inverse of 2
4 is the inverse of 4, with respect to the binary
operation ×5.
Commutative law holds good in (G, ×5).
Therefore (G, ×5) is an abelian group.
Lecture 2: Sub Group and
Cosets
Sub-group
Definition : Let (G, *) be a group and H, be a non-empty subset of G. If
(H, *) is itself is a group then (H, *) is called sub-group of (G, *).
Example 1: Consider (Z6, +6), the group of integers modulo 6.
H = {0, 2, 4} is a subset of Z6 and {H, +6} is a group. Check
whether H is a subgroup of Z6
Solution : Z6 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}.
The following conditions are to be satisfied in order to prove
that it is a subgroup.
(i). Closure: Let a, b ∈ H ⇒ a +6 b ∈ H.
0, 2 ∈ H ⇒ 0 +6 2 = 2 ∈ H.
(ii). Identity Element: The row headed by 0 is exactly same as
the initial row. ∴ 0 is the identity element.
Example 2: Let G = {1, –1, i, –i} and H = {1, –1}
G and H are groups with respect to the binary operation,
multiplication.
H is a subset of G, therefore (H, X) is a sub-group (G, X).
Cyclic group

A Cyclic Group is a group which can be generated by one of its elements.

That is, for some a in G,

G={an | n is an element of Z} Or, in addition notation,


G={na |n is an element of Z}

This element a (which need not be unique) is called a generator of G.

Alternatively, we may write G=<a>.


The set of integers Z under ordinary addition is cyclic. Both
1 and −1 are generators. (Recall that, when the operation is
addition, 1n is interpreted as
1 + 1 + ∙ ∙ ∙+
1 n terms
when n is positive and as
(-1) + (-1) + ∙ ∙ ∙+ (-1)

|n| terms
when n is negative.)
The set Zn = {0, 1, . . . , n−1} for n ≥ 1 is a cyclic group under addition modulo n.
1 is one of the generator.

Zn may have many generators (depending on which n we are given).


Z8 = <1> = <3> = <5> = <7>.

To verify, for instance, that Z8 = <3>, we note that <3> = {3, 3+ 3, 3 + 3 + 3, . . .} is the
set {3, 6, 1, 4, 7, 2, 5, 0} = Z8 .

Thus, 3 is a generator of Z8 . On the other hand, 2 is not a generator, since <2>={0, 2, 4,


6} ≠ Z 8.
U(modulo 10) = {1, 3, 7, 9} = {30 , 31 , 33 , 32 } = <3>. Also, {1, 3, 7, 9} = {70 , 73 ,
71 , 72 } = <7>.
So both 3 and 7 are generators for U(modulo 10).

Quite often in mathematics, a “nonexample” is as helpful in understanding a concept as


an example. With regard to cyclic groups, U(modulo 8) serves this purpose; that is,
U(modulo 8)
is not a cyclic group.
Note that U(modulo 8) = {1, 3, 5, 7}. But
<1> = {1}
<3> = {3, 1}
<5> = {5, 1}
<7> = {7, 1}
so U(modulo 8) ≠ <a> for any a in U(modulo 8).
Cose
ts
Given any subgroup H of a group G, we can construct a partition of
G into “cosets” of H. But for groups, things are a bit more
complicated. Because the group operation may not be commutative.
Hence, we have to define two different sorts of cosets.

If H is a sub group of( G, * ) and a ∈ G then the set


• Ha = { h * a | h ∈ H}is called a right coset of H in G.
• aH = {a * h | h ∈ H}is called a left coset of H is G.
For example, consider the group (ℤ,+) and the subgroup (3ℤ,+). Consider the element 2∈ℤ.
Then the left coset of 3ℤ with representative 2 is:

• 2+3ℤ={2+h:h∈3ℤ}={...,−1,2,5,...}
• 1+3ℤ={1+h:h∈3ℤ}={...,−2,1,4,...}

And the right coset of 3ℤ with representative 2 is:


• 3ℤ+2={h+2:h∈3ℤ}={...,−1,2,5,...}
• 3ℤ+3={h+1:h∈3ℤ}={...,−3,0,3,...}

Note:-
1) Any two left (right) cosets of H in G are either identical or disjoint.
2) Let H be a sub group of G. Then the right cosets of H form a partition of G. i.e., the union of
all right cosets of a sub group H is equal to G.
References
▪ Discrete Mathematics for Computer Scientists and Mathematicians, J. L. Mott, A. Kandel, T.P. Baker, 2nd
Edition, Prentice Hall of India.
▪ Discrete Mathematical Structures, Bernand Kolman, Robert C. Busby, Sharon Cutler Ross, PHI.
▪ Discrete Mathematics, S. K. Chakraborthy and B.K. Sarkar, Oxford, 2011.

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