Introduction

• In your own words, explain the background

information needed to interpret results later in the
report
• Provides context for the report
• Needs to be referenced
 Aim
• Write the aim of the experiment (what are you trying
to find out).
• It is a straightforward expression of what the
researcher is trying to find out from conducting an
investigation.
• Explain why you want to test this problem in an
experiment.
• Good sentence beginnings include “To (investigate,
observe, determine, demonstrate, find, learn about,
explore…)

• To investigate the effect that pH level has on the activity of

enzymes.
 Hypothesis
• Write a testable hypothesis using the format:
• “If there is a change to the independent variable, then this will
happen to the dependent variable”.
• Your practical report will provide a scientific explanation
as to why this hypothesis may be true or false.

• If the amount of sodium bicarbonate is increased, then the

amount of carbon dioxide produced will also increase.

• This is because glucose is used by yeast to make ATP through

cellular respiration. The more glucose that is available, the
faster the rate of cell respiration, and the more CO 2 that will be
produced. CO2 is a product of cellular respiration in yeast, so
the more CO2 the faster the rate of cell respiration.
 Variables
• Write the variables and explain to the reader how
these are changed, measured or kept the same
throughout the experiment.
• Include any relevant units with your variables.
• INDEPENDENT VARIABLE – identify the ONE variable that
you have changed (with units)
• DEPENDENT VARIABLE – identify the variable that you
have measured (with units)
• CONTROLLED VARIABLES – list the aspects that you kept
the same to ensure that your experiment was reliable –
justify your decisions (How and Why)
 Materials
• Write a complete list of the materials and
equipment used during your experiment to collect
results.
• Include the quantity (how many or much you used)
and the resolution in your list.
• Can include a labelled diagram of setup.
• Format with dot points
 Method
• Write down every step (numbered) you
completed during the practical so that another
person can follow the exact steps to get the same
or similar results.
• Avoid using personal pronouns (e.g. I or we),
write each step in third person.
• If it is a complicated setup you may wish to
include a scientific diagram of your apparatus.
• Leave out obvious or trivial details like “The
materials were collected” or “Safety gear was
worn”. Include important details like quantities
and other measurements.
 Method
• Normally, the method is given out as part of the
practical notes
• If any changes have been made, ensure that they are
clearly recorded
• Each sentence in the method should follow the
format below:
• QUANTITY of SUBSTANCE was SOMETHING
DONE TO IT and HOW IT WAS DONE
• 100 mL of water was poured into a
measuring cylinder.
• The test tube was left on the window for one
week.
 Results
• Any data collected or observations made during the
experiment should be accurately recorded in this
section.
• Do not analyse or comment on the relevance of the
observations. This will be done in the discussion
section.
• The results section is divided into sub-sections as
described below:
• Qualitative results = observations
• Tables
• Graphs/figures (think about the type of data you’re
representing)
 Results
• Include qualitative results (brief description of
observations that cannot be shown in tables or
graphs)
• Example: Colour changes, the appearance of a gas,
sounds that were made
• Some of the precipitate stuck to the bottom of the flask and could
not be removed.
• The test tube felt warm.
• Even after thorough mixing, some of the fertiliser did not dissolve.

• A diagram or drawing of your results can be very

helpful
 Results
TABLE OF RESULTS:
• Make sure you have addressed the following in your table
• Descriptive title “Table 1: …”
• Units in headings of table, NOT in body of table
• Centre data in columns
• All decimal places the same
 Results
GRAPH OF RESULTS:
• Line graphs are the best type of graph to use when you
are displaying a change in something over a continuous
range.
• For example, you could use a line graph to display a change in
temperature over time.
• Column graphs are used to compare measurements
between different groups. These graphs should be used
when your data is not continuous, but rather is divided
into different categories.
• If you counted the number of birds of different species, each species
of bird would be its own category. There is no value between “robin”
and “eagle”, so this data is not continuous.
 Results
GRAPH OF RESULTS:
• Make sure you have addressed the following:
• Title – “Fig 1: The effect of independent variable on the dependent
variable”
• Axes labelled (independent on x-axis, dependent on y-axis)
• Units in axis label
• Use an appropriate scale that will spread across the whole graph
• Line of best fit – curved trendline (even amount of points above and
below the line)
 Discussion:
• The discussion section is used to identify the
significance and meaning of the results that were
collected and to identify any flaws or errors that
occurred.
• The discussion is usually written in paragraph
format (i.e. not as a question and answer section)
• Discuss your results in relation to your Biological
Knowledge (why did the results occur?)
 Discussion:
• Describe a pattern observed in the results
• Do your results show a clear relationship between your
independent and dependant variable?
• Describe the relationship
• Explain what this relationship may mean using scientific
reasoning.
• Interpret the results (explain them by linking the
results to the background information)
 Evaluation:
• Identify sources of error, explain how each one
affects the results
• Explain the importance of increasing the sample size
(many trials) and replicating the experiment
• Explain the importance of repeating a practical
investigation.

• Suggested improvements - explain why the

improvement is needed and why the improvement
you’ve suggested should give better results.
 Conclusion
• Conclusion is based on the results and should
summarise your discussion
• Link results to the hypothesis and aim
• Is your hypothesis supported or invalidated by your
results? How do you know this from your results?
• An experiment never proves a hypothesis just supports
or negates it
• Inferences can be made when interpreting data based on
observations and background knowledge – use evidence
to justify conclusions
• Any limitations of the conclusions made
 General Points
• Write an appropriate report title – this should be
specific to your practical and explain what it is
about (refer to independent and dependent
variable)
• Use scientific terminology correctly
• Use concise language and graphics to present
information
• Include a bibliography in full Harvard format of ALL
sources used
 General Points
• You should write in complete, grammatically correct
sentences and avoid elaborate, unnecessary vocabulary.
• Use chemical terms and conventions correctly, including
chemical equation and units of measurement.
• Be concise – If you can use one word instead of a phrase
with two or more words, then choose the one word
• Avoid definitive words (proves, definitely, will cause).
• Write objectively: present facts and figures only, do not
include your beliefs or feelings.
• Avoid colloquialisms such as ‘the results dramatically
showed...”
General Points
Advanced Evaluation
 Discussion:
• RANDOM ERRORS:
• These are fluctuations in observations and differ from
experiment to experiment – scatters around the line-of-
best-fit indicate random errors
• Could be caused by environmental factors, poor
techniques or instruments
• A larger sample size allows averages to be calculated and
reduces the effect of random errors on the results,
thereby improving the reliability of the results.
• Replicating the experiment can also help reduce the
effects of random errors
• Reliable results allow a clear trend/pattern to be described
and thus the results can be used to draw a conclusion. If
results aren’t reliable, a pattern is not clear so, results
can’t be used to draw a conclusion
 Discussion:
• SYSTEMATIC ERRORS:
• These are errors which cause results to differ from the
true values
• Could be caused by faulty calibration or instruments
• Repeating an experiment with different equipment
allows systematic errors to be identified.
• If the repeated experiment produces similar results then
this shows that there are no systematic errors and that
the results are thus accurate.
• This means that the conclusion will be valid (only accurate
results can be used to draw valid/meaningful conclusion)
Discussion:
 Discussion:
• Evaluate accuracy, precision, validity and reliability

• RELIABILITY:
• Increasing the sample size, reduces the effects of
random errors and makes results more RELIABLE
• VALIDITY:
• Repeating the experiment implies the whole
experiment is repeated at a different time with
different equipment
• This helps to identify systematic errors and if the
same data is obtained when the experiment is
repeated, it improves the VALIDITY of the results
• Data is valid if it is reasonable and measures what it is
supposed to be measuring
 Discussion:
• Evaluate accuracy, precision, validity and reliability

• ACCURACY:
• The measure of how close the result is to the real result of
the experiment
• Related to systematic errors and they need to be
minimised if the result is to be accurate
• PRECISION:
• The measure of how well the result has been determined,
irrespective of how close it is to the real value
• Related to scatter so random errors need to be
minimised for data to be precise
• Low scatter = High precision
•