Decision Making, Systems, Modeling, and Support
Prof. Rushen Chahal
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Decision Making, Systems, Modeling, and Support
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Conceptual Foundations of Decision Making The Systems Approach How Support is Provided
Opening Vignette: How to Invest $10,000,000
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Typical Business Decision Aspects
Decision may be made by a group Group member biases Groupthink Several, possibly contradictory objectives Many alternatives Results can occur in the future Attitudes towards risk Need information Gathering information takes time and expense Too much information What-if scenarios Trial-and-error experimentation with the real system may result in a loss Experimentation with the real system - only once Changes in the environment can occur continuously Time pressure
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How are decisions made??? What methodologies can be applied? What is the role of information systems in supporting decision making?
DSS
Decision Support Systems
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Decision Making
Decision Making: a process of choosing among alternative courses of action for the purpose of attaining a goal or goals
Managerial Decision Making is synonymous with the whole process of management (Simon, 1977)
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Decision Making versus Problem Solving
Simons 4 Phases of Decision Making
1. Intelligence 2. Design 3. Choice 4. Implementation
Decision making and problem solving are interchangeable
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Systems
A SYSTEM is a collection of objects such as people, resources, concepts, and procedures intended to perform an identifiable function or to serve a goal
System Levels (Hierarchy): All systems are subsystems interconnected through interfaces
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The Structure of a System
Three Distinct Parts of Systems (Figure 2.1)
Inputs Processes Outputs
Systems
Surrounded by an environment Frequently include feedback The decision maker is usually considered part of the system
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Inputs are elements that enter the system Processes convert or transform inputs into outputs Outputs describe finished products or consequences of being in the system Feedback is the flow of information from the output to the decision maker, who may modify the inputs or the processes (closed loop) The Environment contains the elements that lie outside but impact the system's performance
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How to Identify the Environment?
Two Questions (Churchman, 1975)
1. Does the element matter relative to the system's goals? [YES] 2. Is it possible for the decision maker to significantly manipulate this element? [NO]
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Environmental Elements Can Be
Social Political Legal Physical Economical Often Other Systems
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The Boundary Separates a System From Its Environment
Boundaries may be physical or nonphysical (by definition of scope or time frame) Information system boundaries are usually by definition!
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Closed and Open Systems
Defining manageable boundaries is closing the system
A Closed System is totally independent of other systems and subsystems An Open System is very dependent on its environment
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An Information System
Collects, processes, stores, analyzes, and disseminates information for a specific purpose Is often at the heart of many organizations Accepts inputs and processes data to provide information to decision makers and helps decision makers communicate their results
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System Effectiveness and Efficiency
Two Major Classes of Performance Measurement
Effectiveness is the degree to which goals are achieved Doing the right thing! Efficiency is a measure of the use of inputs (or resources) to achieve outputs Doing the thing right! MSS emphasize effectiveness Often: several non-quantifiable, conflicting goals
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Models
Major component of DSS Use models instead of experimenting on the real system
A model is a simplified representation or abstraction of reality. Reality is generally too complex to copy exactly Much of the complexity is actually irrelevant in problem solving
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Degrees of Model Abstraction
(Least to Most)
Iconic (Scale) Model: Physical replica of a system Analog Model behaves like the real system but does not look like it (symbolic representation) Mathematical (Quantitative) Models use mathematical relationships to represent complexity Used in most DSS analyses
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Benefits of Models
1. Time compression 2. Easy model manipulation 3. Low cost of construction 4. Low cost of execution (especially that of errors) 5. Can model risk and uncertainty 6. Can model large and extremely complex systems with possibly infinite solutions 7. Enhance and reinforce learning, and enhance training. Computer graphics advances: more iconic and analog models (visual simulation)
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The Modeling Process-A Preview
How Much to Order for the Ma-Pa Grocery? Bob and Jan: How much bread to stock each day?
Solution Approaches
Trial-and-Error Simulation Optimization Heuristics
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The Decision-Making Process
Systematic Decision-Making Process (Simon, 1977)
Intelligence Design Choice Implementation
(Figure 2.2) Modeling is Essential to the Process
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Intelligence phase
Reality is examined The problem is identified and defined Representative model is constructed The model is validated and evaluation criteria are set Includes a proposed solution to the model If reasonable, move on to the Solution to the original problem
Design phase
Choice phase
Implementation phase
Failure: Return to the modeling process Often Backtrack / CycleRushen Chahal the Process Prof. Throughout
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The Intelligence Phase
Scan the environment to identify problem situations or opportunities
Find the Problem
Identify organizational goals and objectives Determine whether they are being met Explicitly define the problem
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Problem Classification
Structured versus Unstructured Programmed versus Nonprogrammed Problems Simon (1977) Nonprogrammed Problems Programmed Problems
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Problem Decomposition: Divide a complex problem into (easier to solve) subproblems Chunking (Salami)
Some seemingly poorly structured problems may have some highly structured subproblems
Problem Ownership Outcome: Problem Statement
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The Design Phase
Generating, developing, and analyzing possible courses of action
Includes
Understanding the problem Testing solutions for feasibility A model is constructed, tested, and validated
Modeling
Conceptualization of the problem Abstraction to quantitative and/or qualitative forms
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Mathematical Model
Identify variables Establish equations describing their relationships Simplifications through assumptions Balance model simplification and the accurate representation of reality Modeling: an art and science
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Quantitative Modeling Topics
Model Components Model Structure Selection of a Principle of Choice (Criteria for Evaluation) Developing (Generating) Alternatives Predicting Outcomes Measuring Outcomes Scenarios
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Components of Quantitative Models
Decision Variables Uncontrollable Variables (and/or Parameters) Result (Outcome) Variables Mathematical Relationships or Symbolic or Qualitative Relationships (Figure 2.3)
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Results of Decisions are Determined by the
Decision Uncontrollable Factors Relationships among Variables
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Result Variables
Reflect the level of effectiveness of the system Dependent variables Examples - Table 2.2
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Decision Variables
Describe alternative courses of action The decision maker controls them Examples - Table 2.2
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Uncontrollable Variables or Parameters
Factors that affect the result variables Not under the control of the decision maker Generally part of the environment Some constrain the decision maker and are called constraints Examples - Table 2.2
Intermediate Result Variables Reflect intermediate outcomes
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The Structure of Quantitative Models
Mathematical expressions (e.g., equations or inequalities) connect the components Simple financial model P=R-C Present-value model P = F / (1+i)n
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LP Example
The Product-Mix Linear Programming Model
MBI Corporation Decision: How many computers to build next month? Two types of computers Labor limit Materials limit Marketing lower limits
Constraint Labor (days) Materials $ Units Units Profit $ CC7 300 10,000 1 8,000 CC8 500 15,000 1 12,000 Rel <= <= >= >= Max Limit 200,000 / mo 8,000,000/mo 100 200
Objective: Maximize Total Profit / Month
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Linear Programming Model
Components Decision variables Result variable Uncontrollable variables (constraints) Solution X1 = 333.33 X2 = 200 Profit = $5,066,667
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Optimization Problems
Linear programming Goal programming Network programming Integer programming Transportation problem Assignment problem Nonlinear programming Dynamic programming Stochastic programming Investment models Simple inventory models Replacement models (capital budgeting)
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The Principle of Choice
What criteria to use? Best solution? Good enough solution?
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Selection of a Principle of Choice
Not the choice phase
A decision
regarding the acceptability of a solution approach
Normative Descriptive
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Normative Models
The chosen alternative is demonstrably the best of all (normally a good idea) Optimization process Normative decision theory based on rational decision makers
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Rationality Assumptions
Humans are economic beings whose objective is to maximize the attainment of goals; that is, the decision maker is rational In a given decision situation, all viable alternative courses of action and their consequences, or at least the probability and the values of the consequences, are known Decision makers have an order or preference that enables them to rank the desirability of all consequences of the analysis
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Suboptimization
Narrow the boundaries of a system Consider a part of a complete system Leads to (possibly very good, but) non-optimal solutions Viable method
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Descriptive Models
Describe things as they are, or as they are believed to be Extremely useful in DSS for evaluating the consequences of decisions and scenarios No guarantee a solution is optimal Often a solution will be good enough Simulation: Descriptive modeling technique
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Descriptive Models
Information flow Scenario analysis Financial planning Complex inventory decisions Markov analysis (predictions) Environmental impact analysis Simulation Waiting line (queue) management
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Satisficing (Good Enough)
Most human decision makers will settle for a good enough solution Tradeoff: time and cost of searching for an optimum versus the value of obtaining one Good enough or satisficing solution may meet a certain goal level is attained (Simon, 1977)
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Why Satisfice? Bounded Rationality (Simon)
Humans have a limited capacity for rational thinking Generally construct and analyze a simplified model Behavior to the simplified model may be rational But, the rational solution to the simplified model may NOT BE rational in the real-world situation Rationality is bounded by
limitations on human processing capacities individual differences
Bounded rationality: why many models are descriptive, not normative
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Developing (Generating) Alternatives
In Optimization Models: Automatically by the Model! Not Always So!
Issue: When to Stop?
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Predicting the Outcome of Each Alternative
Must predict the future outcome of each proposed alternative Consider what the decision maker knows (or believes) about the forecasted results Classify Each Situation as Under
Certainty Risk Uncertainty
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Decision Making Under Certainty
Assumes complete knowledge available (deterministic environment) Example: U.S. Treasury bill investment Typically for structured problems with short time horizons Sometimes DSS approach is needed for certainty situations
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Decision Making Under Risk (Risk Analysis)
Probabilistic or stochastic decision situation Must consider several possible outcomes for each alternative, each with a probability Long-run probabilities of the occurrences of the given outcomes are assumed known or estimated Assess the (calculated) degree of risk associated with each alternative
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Risk Analysis
Calculate the expected value of each alternative Select the alternative with the best expected value Example: poker game with some cards face up (7 card game - 2 down, 4 up, 1 down)
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Decision Making Under Uncertainty
Several outcomes possible for each course of action BUT the decision maker does not know, or cannot estimate the probability of occurrence More difficult - insufficient information Assessing the decision maker's (and/or the organizational) attitude toward risk Example: poker game with no cards face up (5 card stud or draw)
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Measuring Outcomes
Goal attainment Maximize profit Minimize cost Customer satisfaction level (minimize number of complaints) Maximize quality or satisfaction ratings (surveys)
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Scenarios
Useful in
Simulation What-if analysis
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Importance of Scenarios in MSS
Help identify potential opportunities and/or problem areas Provide flexibility in planning Identify leading edges of changes that management should monitor Help validate major assumptions used in modeling Help check the sensitivity of proposed solutions to changes in scenarios
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Possible Scenarios
Worst possible (low demand, high cost) Best possible (high demand, high revenue, low cost) Most likely (median or average values) Many more
The scenario sets the stage for the analysis
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The Choice Phase
The CRITICAL act - decision made here! Search, evaluation, and recommending an appropriate solution to the model Specific set of values for the decision variables in a selected alternative The problem is considered solved only after the recommended solution to the model is successfully implemented
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Search Approaches
Analytical Techniques Algorithms (Optimization) Blind and Heuristic Search Techniques
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Evaluation: Multiple Goals, Sensitivity Analysis, What-If, and Goal Seeking
Evaluation (with the search process) leads to a recommended solution Multiple goals Complex systems have multiple goals Some may conflict Typically, quantitative models have a single goal Can transform a multiple-goal problem into a single-goal problem
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Common Methods
Utility theory Goal programming Expression of goals as constraints, using linear programming Point system
Computerized models can support multiple goal decision making
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Sensitivity Analysis
Change inputs or parameters, look at model results Sensitivity analysis checks relationships
Types of Sensitivity Analyses
Automatic Trial and error
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Trial and Error
Change input data and re-solve the problem Better and better solutions can be discovered How to do? Easy in spreadsheets (Excel)
What-if Goal seeking
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Goal Seeking
Backward solution approach Example: Figure 2.10 What interest rate causes an the net present value of an investment to break even?
In a DSS the what-if and the goal-seeking options must be easy to perform
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Goal Seeking
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The Implementation Phase
There is nothing more difficult to carry out, nor more doubtful of success, nor more dangerous to handle, than to initiate a new order of things (Machiavelli, 1500s) *** The Introduction of a hange ***
Important Issues
Resistance to change Degree of top management support Users roles and involvement in system development Users training
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How Decisions Are Supported
Specific MSS technologies relationship to the decision making process (see Figure 2.11)
Intelligence: DSS, ES, ANN, MIS, Data Mining, OLAP, EIS, GSS Design and Choice: DSS, ES, GSS, Management Science, ANN Implementation: DSS, ES, GSS
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Alternative Decision Making Models
Paterson decision-making process Kotters process model Pounds flow chart of managerial behavior Kepner-Tregoe rational decision-making approach Hammond, Kenney, and Raiffa smart choice method Cougars creative problem solving concept and model Pokras problem-solving methodology Bazermans anatomy of a decision Harrisons interdisciplinary approaches Beachs naturalistic decision theories
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Naturalistic Decision Theories
Focus on how decisions are made, not how they should be made Based on behavioral decision theory Recognition models Narrative-based models
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Recognition Models
Policy Recognition-primed decision model
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Narrative-based Models (Descriptive)
Scenario model Story model Argument-driven action (ADA) model Incremental models Image theory
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Other Important DecisionMaking Issues
Personality types Gender Human cognition Decision styles
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Personality (Temperament) Types
Strong relationship between personality and decision making Type helps explain how to best attack a problem Type indicates how to relate to other types
important for team building
Influences cognitive style and decision style
http://www.humanmetrics.com/cgi-win/JTypes2.asp
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Myers-Briggs Dimensions
Extraversion (E) to Intraversion (I) Sensation (S) to Intuition (N) Thinking (T) to Feeling (F) Perceiving (P) to Judging (J)
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Gender
Sometimes empirical testing indicates gender differences in decision making Results are overwhelmingly inconclusive
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Cognition
ognition: Activities by which an individual resolves
differences between an internalized view of the environment and what actually exists in that same environment
Ability to perceive and understand information Cognitive models are attempts to explain or understand various human cognitive processes
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Cognitive Style
The subjective process through which individuals perceive, organize, and change information during the decision-making process Often determines people's preference for human-machine interface Impacts on preferences for qualitative versus quantitative analysis and preferences for decision-making aids Affects the way a decision maker frames a problem
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Cognitive Style Research
Impacts on the design of management information systems May be overemphasized Analytic decision maker Heuristic decision maker
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Decision Styles
The manner in which decision makers
Think and react to problems Perceive their
Cognitive response Values and beliefs
Varies from individual to individual and from situation to situation Decision making is a nonlinear process The manner in which managers make decisions (and the way they interact with other people) describes their decision style
There are dozens
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Some Decision Styles
Heuristic Analytic Autocratic Democratic Consultative (with individuals or groups) Combinations and variations For successful decision-making support, an MSS must fit the
Decision situation Decision style
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The system
should be flexible and adaptable to different users have what-if and goal seeking have graphics have process flexibility
An MSS should help decision makers use and develop their own styles, skills, and knowledge Different decision styles require different types of support Major factor: individual or group decision maker
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The Decision Makers
Individuals Groups
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Individuals
May still have conflicting objectives Decisions may be fully automated
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Groups
Most major decisions made by groups Conflicting objectives are common Variable size People from different departments People from different organizations The group decision-making process can be very complicated Consider Group Support Systems (GSS) Organizational DSS can help in enterprise-wide decision-making situations
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Summary
Managerial decision making is the whole process of management Problem solving also refers to opportunity's evaluation A system is a collection of objects such as people, resources, concepts, and procedures intended to perform an identifiable function or to serve a goal DSS deals primarily with open systems A model is a simplified representation or abstraction of reality Models enable fast and inexpensive experimentation with systems
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Modeling can employ optimization, heuristic, or simulation techniques Decision making involves four major phases: intelligence, design, choice, and implementation What-if and goal seeking are the two most common sensitivity analysis approaches Computers can support all phases of decision making by automating many required tasks
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Summary
Personality (temperament) influences decision making Gender impacts on decision making are inconclusive Human cognitive styles may influence humanmachine interaction Human decision styles need to be recognized in designing MSS
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