COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS

What Is A Motherboard

A motherboard is one of the most essential parts of a computer system.

It is a sheet of plastic that holds all the circuitry to connect the various components of a computer system
Thin layers of copper or aluminium foil, referred to as traces, are printed onto this sheet.
Its a motherboard which contains a number of sockets and slots to connect the other components.

Functions of Motherboard
• Motherboards are the primary hardware component on a computer, and perform a number of critical tasks.
• The motherboard acts as the central backbone of a computer on which other modular parts are installed such
as the CPU, RAM and hard disks.
• It also acts as the platform on which various expansion slots are available to install other devices / interfaces.
. • The motherboard is, in essence, a hub that houses a number of essential components such as the Central
Processing Unit (CPU), system memory (RAM) and graphics card.
• A primary function of the motherboard is to serve as the base upon which a computer’s components are built.
• It is also responsible to distribute power to the various components of the computer.
• The role of the motherboard is to allow all the components to communicate with each other.
• It is responsible for managing the traffic of information within the computer system, which it does by means of
the motherboard chipset.
• The function of the motherboard chipset is to direct the flow of data that the computer components require
 Type of Motherboard Form Factor Key Features Common Use Cases
- Multiple expansion slots
Desktop PCs for gaming,
ATX (Advanced - Supports high-performance
Standard (12" x 9.6") productivity, and
Technology Extended) CPUs and GPUs
workstations
- Good for cooling

- Fewer expansion slots

Entry-level gaming PCs,
Micro-ATX Compact (9.6" x 9.6") - Cheaper and compact
home desktops
- Good for budget builds

- Very compact
- Limited slots for RAM and Small Form Factor (SFF) PCs,
Mini-ITX Small (6.7" x 6.7")
expansion HTPCs
- Low power consumption

- Premium components
High-performance PCs,
E-ATX (Extended ATX) Large (12" x 13") - Extra slots for GPUs, RAM
enthusiast-level builds
- Ideal for cooling and airflow

- Better thermal
BTX (Balanced Varies (slightly different management
Legacy systems (obsolete)
Technology Extended) from ATX) - Reversed airflow design
- Rarely used now
- Multiple CPU sockets
Custom (varies by server - ECC RAM support Data centers, enterprise
Server Motherboards
size) - High durability and servers
reliability
- Custom design
- Integrated components
Laptop Motherboards Custom (Non-standard) Laptops, ultrabooks
- Compact and power-
efficient

- Rugged design
Custom (Compact or - Withstands extreme Industrial automation,
Industrial Motherboards
Standard) conditions robotics, medical systems
- Long lifecycle support
 MEMORY

❑ Computer memory is any physical device capable of storing

information temporarily or permanently.

❑ For example, Random Access Memory (RAM), is a volatile

memory that stores information on an integrated circuit used by
the operating system, software, and hardware.

❑ There are two types of memory

✓ Primary Memory
✓ Secondary Memory
 PRIMARY MEMORY
❑ Primary memory is computer memory that a processor or
computer accesses first or directly.

❑ It allows a processor to access running execution applications

and services that are temporarily stored in a specific memory
location.

❑ Primary memory is also known as primary storage or main

memory.

❑ These memories are manufactured by using integrated electronic

circuits or semiconductor device.

❑ It has limited capacity and data is lost when power is switched

off.
Primary Memory are divided into two subcategories
❑ Random Access Memory (RAM)
❑ Read Only Memory (ROM)
 Random Access Memory (RAM):
❑ The primary storage is referred to as random access memory (RAM) due to the random
selection of memory locations.

❑ It performs both read and write operations on memory.

❑ It takes the form of integrated circuits that allow the stored data to be accessed in any
order(random).

❑ If power failures happened in systems during memory access then you will lose your data
permanently. So, RAM is volatile memory.

Why is RAM so important?

❑ Aside from the processor, the two most important factors affecting a computer system’s
performance are RAM and hard disk capacity.

❑ Hard disks are typically huge, with GBs of storage, so the primary limiting factor is the amount of
installed RAM.

❑ Without enough RAM, the operating system must swap out storage space with your hard disk.
The OS creates a Paging File (swap file) to supplement RAM (workspace). This is Virtual Memory.

❑ Virtual memory is inherently slow! RAM speed can typically be FASTER than the hard disk.
 More About RAM:
❑ Ram chips consist of millions of switches that are sensitive to changes in electric current.
❑ When you turn on your computer, operating system files are loaded from a storage
device (the hard disk, usually) into RAM, and they remain there as long as your computer
is running.
❑ RAM contents changes as programs are executed.
❑ Two basic types of RAM are
✓ Dynamic RAM (DRAM), and
✓ Static RAM (SRAM).

Topic not covered: The Cache

SDRAM (Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory):

❑ "Synchronous" tells about the behaviour of the DRAM type. In late

1996, SDRAM began to appear in systems. Unlike previous
technologies.

❑ SDRAM is designed to synchronize itself with the timing of the CPU.

This enables the memory controller to know the exact clock cycle
when the requested data will be ready, so the CPU no longer has to
wait between memory accesses.

❑ For example, PC66 SDRAM runs at 66 MT/s, PC100 SDRAM runs at

100 MT/s, PC133 SDRAM runs at 133 MT/s, and so on.

❑ SDRAM can stand for SDR SDRAM (Single Data Rate SDRAM), where
the I/O, internal clock and bus clock are the same.

❑ For example, the I/O, internal clock and bus clock of PC133 are all
133 Mhz. Single Data Rate means that SDR SDRAM can only
read/write one time in a clock cycle.

❑ SDRAM have to wait for the completion of the previous command to

be able to do another read/write operation.
DDR SDRAM (Double Data Rate SDRAM):

❑ The next generation of SDRAM is DDR, which achieves greater

bandwidth than the preceding single data rate SDRAM by
transferring data on the rising and falling edges of the clock
signal (double pumped).

❑ Effectively, it doubles the transfer rate without increasing the

frequency of the clock.

❑ The transfer rate of DDR SDRAM is the double of SDR SDRAM

without changing the internal clock.

❑ DDR SDRAM, as the first generation of DDR memory, the

prefetch buffer is 2bit, which is the double of SDR SDRAM.

❑ The transfer rate of DDR is between 266~400 MT/s. DDR266

and DDR400 are of this type.
DDR2 SDRAM(Double Data Rate Two SDRAM):

❑ Its primary benefit is the ability to operate the external data bus twice
as fast as DDR SDRAM. This is achieved by improved bus signal.

❑ The prefetch buffer of DDR2 is 4 bit(double of DDR SDRAM).

❑ DDR2 memory is at the same internal clock speed (133~200MHz) as

DDR, but the transfer rate of DDR2 can reach 533~800 MT/s with the
improved I/O bus signal. DDR2 533 and DDR2 800 memory types are
on the market.

DDR3 SDRAM(Double Data Rate Three SDRAM):

❑ DDR3 memory reduces 40% power consumption compared to current

DDR2 modules, allowing for lower operating currents and voltages
(1.5 V, compared to DDR2's 1.8 V or DDR's 2.5 V).

❑ The transfer rate of DDR3 is 800~1600 MT/s. DDR3's prefetch buffer

width is 8 bit, whereas DDR2's is 4 bit, and DDR's is 2 bit.

❑ DDR3 also adds two functions, such as ASR (Automatic Self-Refresh)

and SRT (Self-Refresh Temperature). They can make the memory
control the refresh rate according to the temperature variation.
DDR4 SDRAM (Double Data Rate Fourth SDRAM):

❑ DDR4 SDRAM provides the lower operating voltage (1.2V) and higher
transfer rate.

❑ The transfer rate of DDR4 is 2133~3200 MT/s. DDR4 adds four new
Bank Groups technology.

❑ Each bank group has the feature of singlehanded operation.

❑ DDR4 can process 4 data within a clock cycle, so DDR4's efficiency is

better than DDR3 obviously. DDR4 also adds some functions, such as
DBI (Data Bus Inversion), CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check) and CA parity.
They can enhance DDR4 memory's signal integrity, and improve the
stability of data transmission/access.
❑ Both RAM and ROM are random access memories and both can
be used for reading purposes.

❑ The distinguishing feature is RAM's ability to alter data stored in

it, which is not possible with ROM.

❑ Typically ROM is used to store system instructions which are

relatively permanent in nature.

❑ RAM is volatile; that is, it loses its contents if the device is

electrically disconnected.
Types of ROM
❑ Programmable read-only memory (PROM).

❑ Erasable programmable read-only memory (EPROM).

❑ Electrically erasable programmable read-only-memory (EEPROM)

Why is memory important or needed for a computer?
❑ All of devices on a computer do not operate at the same speed
and computer memory gives your computer a place to quickly
access data.

❑ If the CPU had to wait for a secondary storage device like a

hard disk drive the computer would be much slower.
How is memory used
❑ When a program such as your Internet browser is open, it is
loaded from your hard drive and placed into RAM, which allows
that program to communicate with the processor at higher
speeds.

❑ Anything you save to your computer, such as a picture or video,

is sent to your hard drive for storage.
 WHAT IS HARD DISK DRIVE (HDD)
❑ HDD is a data storage device which can store and retrieve digital
information using one or more rigid rapidly rotating disks
(platters) coated with magnetic material.
❑ HDDs are a type of non-volatile storage, retaining stored data
even when powered off.
❑ A computer hard disk drive (HDD) is the mechanism that controls
the positioning, reading and writing of the hard disk, which
furnishes data storage.

❑ The two most common form factors for modern HDDs are 3.5-
inch, for desktop computers, and 2.5-inch, primarily for laptops
HDDs are connected to systems by standard interface cables such
as PATA (Parallel ATA), SATA (Serial ATA), USB or SAS (Serial
Attached SCSI) cables.
 Types of Hard disk drive
❑ There are four types of hard drive connections that a computer
could have:

✓ Parallel ATA (PATA), also known as IDE, and

✓ Serial ATA (SATA). SATA is most commonly used in nearly all

computers today, due to advantages.

✓ Small Computer System Interface (SCSI)

✓ Solid State Drives (SSD)

Explain briefly the structure of a hard drive?
 Types of Hard disk drive
Parallel ATA
❑ Parallel ATA (Parallel Advanced Technology Attachment or PATA) is a standard
for connecting hard drives into computer systems.

❑ As its name implies, PATA is based on parallel signaling technology.

❑ These PATA drives were introduced by Western Digital back in 1986. Integrated
Drive Electronics ( IDE ) drives operate according to this standard.

❑ Parallel ATA (PATA), originally AT Attachment, is an interface standard for the

connection of storage devices such as hard disk drives, floppy disk drives, and
optical disc drives in computers.

❑ Parallel ATA was originally called Advanced Technology Attachment ( ATA ) until
the year 2003 when SATA was introduced.
 Types of Hard disk drive
Serial ATA
❑ Serial ATA hard drives have replaced the PATA drives in desktop and laptop
computers.

❑ Serial ATA (SATA, abbreviated from Serial AT Attachment) is a computer bus

interface that connects host bus adapters to mass storage devices such as
hard disk drives, optical drives, and solid-state drives.
❑ Using serial signaling technology.

❑ Serial ATA succeeded the older Parallel ATA (PATA) standard, offering several
advantages over the older interface:

✓ Reduced cable size and cost (seven conductors instead of 40 or 80),

✓ Native hot swapping,
✓ Faster data transfer through higher signaling rates, and more efficient
transfer through an (optional) I/O queuing protocol.
 Difference between PATA and SATA
PATA SATA
PATA is capable of data transfers speeds of whereas SATA is capable of 150/300/600
66/100/133 MBp/second MBp/second.
The traditional cable uses 40-pin connectors The cable for a SATA connection has seven
attached to a ribbon cable conductors
The signal voltage is 5 V for PATA. The signal voltage is lower 250 mV for SATA
There are usually only two PATA connections There are four to six SATA connections on a
on a computer motherboard that supports a computer motherboard, allowing for
total of four PATA hard drives. multiple SATA hard drives to be hooked up.
PATA cables allow two drives to be attached SATA abandons the master/slave
to the same cable via a master/slave arrangement and each cable can attach to a
arrangement. single drive.
 Serial ATA (SATA)

A seven-pin SATA data cable

(left-angled version of the
connector)
PATA SATA SCSI
 Difference between FAT and NTFS
NTFS (New Technology File
Feature FAT (File Allocation Table)
System)
Full Form File Allocation Table New Technology File System
Developed By Microsoft Microsoft
1977 (FAT12), 1984 (FAT16), 1996
Year Introduced 1993 (Windows NT 3.1)
(FAT32)
4 GB (FAT32), 2 GB (FAT16), and 16
File Size Limit 16 EB (Exabytes)
MB (FAT12)
2 TB (FAT32), 32 GB (Windows- 256 TB (with Windows Server), 16 EB
Partition Size Limit
Formatted FAT32) (theoretical limit)
8.3 format in FAT16 (8-character
File Name Length name + 3-character extension) Up to 255 characters in Unicode
255 characters in FAT32
Faster for small drives and less Slightly slower due to advanced
Speed
overhead features
No built-in file permissions or Supports file-level security,
Security
encryption permissions, and encryption
Compression Not supported Supported
Less reliable; prone to data More reliable; includes journaling for
Reliability
corruption crash recovery
Available; logs changes before
Journaling Not available
committing them to disk
Fully compatible with modern
Supported on almost all operating
Windows systems
Compatibility systems, including Windows, macOS,
Read-only support on macOS and
Linux, and older devices
Linux (without extra software)
- USB drives, SD cards, older devices - Modern Windows PCs
Usage - Devices with limited storage - Internal hard drives and SSDs
- Multi-platform compatibility - Servers and enterprise storage
Supports advanced features like disk
Advanced Features None
quotas, encryption, and symbolic links
 Types of Hard disk drive

SSD (solid-state drive)

❑ A solid-state drive (SSD) is a nonvolatile storage device that
stores persistent data on solid-state flash memory.

❑ Solid-state drives actually aren't hard drives in the traditional

sense of the term, as there are no moving parts involved.

❑ A traditional hard disk drive (HDD) consists of a spinning disk

with a read/write head on a mechanical arm called an actuator.

❑ An SSD, on the other hand, has an array of semiconductor

memory organized as a disk drive, using integrated circuits (ICs)
rather than magnetic or optical storage media. An SSD may also
be referred to as a solid-state disk.
BUS
• A bus is a communication pathway connecting two or more devices.
• A key characteristic of a bus is that it is a shared transmission medium.
• Multiple devices connect to the bus, and a signal transmitted by any one device is
available for reception by all other devices attached to the bus.
• If two devices transmit during the same time period, their signals will overlap and
become garbled. Thus, only one device at a time can successfully

SYSTEM BUS

• A bus that connect major components is called system bus.

• A system bus consists, typically, of from about fifty to hundreds of separate lines. Each
line is assigned a particular meaning or function
• System bus usually is separated into three functional groups.
• Data Bus
• Address Bus
Control Bus
• • In addition, there may be power distribution lines that supply power to the attached
modules.
1. Data Bus :-
1. Transfer data between different components of computer.
2. It transfer instructions from to CPU for execution.
3. The data bus lines are bi-directional and carry data to or from memory.
2. Address Bus :-
1. Identify particular address in main memory.
2. A computer with a 32-bit address bus can directly address 4GB of
physical memory.
3. Control Bus:-
1. Transmit different commands from one component to another
component.
2. A control signal contains the following:
1. Timing Information: It specifies the time for
which a device can use data and address
bus.
2. Command Signal: It specifies the type of
operation to be performed.
4. Expansion Bus:
1. The buses that connect CPU to the peripheral devices are called
expansion buses.
2. Provide faster transfer speeds and wider bit widths for higher data
transfer.
 What is microprocessor ?
❑ A microprocessor is an electronic component that is
used by a computer to do its work.
❑ It is a central processing unit on a single integrated
circuit chip containing millions of very small
components including transistors, resistors, and diodes
that work together.
❑Is the microprocessor, the brains of the computer.
✓Housed on a tiny silicon chip.
✓Chip contains millions of switches and pathways that
help your computer make important decisions.
✓CPU has two primary sections:
➢Arithmetic/logic unit
➢Control unit
❑ Registers - fast, on-chip memory inside the CPU,
dedicated or general purpose.
 What are the Main Functions of a CPU?
The Four Primary Functions of the CPU
The CPU processes instructions it receives in the process of decoding data. In
processing this data, the CPU performs four basic steps:

❑ Fetch Each instruction is stored in memory and has its own address. The
processor takes this address number from the program counter, which is
responsible for tracking which instructions the CPU should execute next.

❑ Decode All programs to be executed are translated to into Assembly

instructions. Assembly code must be decoded into binary instructions,
which are understandable to your CPU. This step is called decoding.

❑ Execute While executing instructions the CPU can do one of three things:
Do calculations with its ALU, move data from one memory location to
another, or jump to a different address.

❑ Store The CPU must give feedback after executing an instruction and the
output data is written to the memory.
 SOFTWARE
❑ Software is a set of instructions or programs instructing a
computer to do specific tasks.

❑ Software is a program that enables a computer to perform a

specific task, as opposed to the physical components of the
system (hardware).

Types of Software

❑ System Software.

❑ Application Software.
 SYSTEM SOFTWARE
❑ System software is a type of computer program that is designed to run a computer's
hardware and application programs.

❑ System software includes device drivers, operating systems (OSs), compilers, disk
formatters, text editors and utilities helping the computer to operate more efficiently.

❑ It is also responsible for managing hardware components and providing basic non-task-
specific functions.

❑ The system software is usually written in C programming language.

❑ Example :
❑ Windows
❑ Linux
❑ Mac Os

APPLICATION SOFTWARE
❑ Application software is intended to perform certain tasks.

❑ Examples of application software include office suites, gaming applications, database

systems and educational software.

❑ Application software can be a single program or a collection of small programs.

 OPERATING SYSTEM
❑ An operating system is a program that acts a an intermediary between a user of a computer and the
computer hardware.

❑ An operating system (OS) is system software .It is a collection of programs which control over all
function of computer.

❑ An operating system manages computer hardware and software resources and provides common
services for computer programs.

❑ An operating system is a software which performs all the basic tasks like process management ,
memory management , file management, handling input and output, and controlling peripheral
devices such as disk drives and printers.

❑ Some popular Operating Systems include Linux, Windows, OS X

TASKS OF AN OPERATING SYSTEM

■ Process Management
■ Main Memory Management
■ File Management
■ I/O System Management
■ Secondary Storage Management
 Kernel
❑ This provides basic-level control over all of the computer
hardware devices.
❑ Main roles include reading data from memory and writing data to
memory, processing execution orders, determining how data is
received and sent by devices such as the monitor, keyboard and
mouse, and determining how to interpret data received from
networks.
❑ A kernel is the central part of an operating system.
❑ It is a bridge between application and actual data processing
done at the hardware level.
❑ It manages the operations of the computer and the hardware -
most notably memory and CPU time.
❑ There are two types of kernels
✓ A microkernel, which only contains basic functionality;
✓ A monolithic kernel, which contains many device drivers.
 Kernel
❑ A processor in a computer running Windows has two different
modes:

✓ user mode
✓ kernel mode

❑ The processor switches between the two modes depending on

what type of code is running on the processor.

❑ Applications run in user mode, and Core operating system

components run in kernel mode. While many drivers run in
kernel mode, some drivers may run in user mode.
 Processor
❑ A processor is an integrated electronic circuit that performs the calculations that run a
computer.

❑ A processor performs arithmetical, logical, input/output (I/O) and other basic instructions
that are passed from an operating system (OS).

❑ Most other processes are dependent on the operations of a processor.

❑ The terms processor, CPU and microprocessor are commonly linked.

Processor Types
❑ There are two primary manufacturers of computer microprocessors.

❑ Intel and Advanced Micro Devices (AMD) lead the market in terms of speed and quality.

❑ Intel's desktop CPUs include Celeron, Pentium and Core. AMD's desktop processors
include Sempron, Athlon and Phenom. Intel makes Celeron M, Pentium M and Core
i3,i5,i7 and mobile processors.

❑ AMD makes mobile versions of its Sempron and Athlon, as well as the Turion mobile
processor which comes in Ultra and Dual-Core versions.

❑ Both companies make both single-core and multi-core processors.

 Feature Intel Core i3 Intel Core i5 Intel Core i7 Intel Core i9

Power users (content Enthusiasts and

Mid-level users (gaming,
Target Audience Entry-level users (basic tasks) creation, gaming, professionals (high-end
multitasking)
multitasking) workloads)

Performance Basic Moderate High Extreme

6–14 cores, 12–20+
Cores/Threads 2–4 cores, 4–8 threads 4–10 cores, 8–16 threads 8–24 cores, 16–32+ threads
threads
Lower base and boost speeds Moderate base and boost Higher base and boost Highest base and boost
Clock Speeds
(e.g., 3.0 GHz) speeds (e.g., 3.5 GHz) speeds (e.g., 4.0 GHz) speeds (e.g., 5.0+ GHz)
Cache 6–8 MB L3 Cache 8–12 MB L3 Cache 12–25 MB L3 Cache 20–36 MB L3 Cache
Limited (only on some
Hyper-Threading Limited (some models) Supported (most models) Fully supported
models)
Supported (on newer
Turbo Boost Supported Supported Supported
models)
Intel UHD Graphics (optional,
Intel Iris Xe or UHD
Integrated Graphics Intel UHD Graphics Intel UHD Graphics often excluded for higher-
Graphics
end use cases)

Moderate to high (TDP: High to extreme (TDP: ~65-

Power Consumption Low (TDP: ~15-35W) Moderate (TDP: ~35-65W)
~45-125W) 165W)

Advanced gaming,
Web browsing, office apps, Gaming, photo editing, Video editing, 3D
Use Cases simulation, AI, video
streaming multitasking rendering, gaming
production
 spect Core Thread

Type Physical hardware Logical (virtual) unit

Purpose Executes instructions and Optimizes resource usage for

tasks independently multitasking

Typically double the number

Limited by the physical design of cores (if
Quantity of the CPU Hyper-Threading/SMT is
enabled)

Provides direct performance Improves multitasking

Performance improvement efficiency, but not as much as
adding more cores

Quad-core CPU with 8

Example Quad-core CPU (4 cores) threads (4 cores × 2 threads
per core)
 Multiprogramming
❑ In a multiprogramming system there are one or more programs loaded in
main memory which are ready to execute.
❑ Only one program at a time is able to get the CPU for executing its
instructions (i.e., there is at most one process running on the system) while
all the others are waiting their turn.
❑ The main idea of multiprogramming is to maximize the use of CPU time.
❑ Indeed, suppose the currently running process is performing an I/O task
(which, by definition, does not need the CPU to be accomplished). Then, the
OS may interrupt that process and give the control to one of the other in-
main-memory programs that are ready to execute
❑ In this way, no CPU time is wasted by the system waiting for the I/O task to
be completed, and a running process keeps executing until either it
voluntarily releases the CPU or when it blocks for an I/O operation.
Therefore, the ultimate goal of multiprogramming is to keep the CPU busy as
long as there are processes ready to execute.
 Multiprocessing
❑ Multiprocessing sometimes refers to executing multiple
processes (programs) at the same time. This might be
misleading because we have already introduced the term
“multiprogramming” to describe that before.

❑ In fact, multiprocessing refers to the hardware (i.e., the CPU

units) rather than the software (i.e., running processes). If the
underlying hardware provides more than one processor then
that is multiprocessing. Several variations on the basic scheme
exist, e.g., multiple cores on one die or multiple dies in one
package or multiple packages in one system.

❑ Anyway, a system can be both multi programmed by having

multiple programs running at the same time and
multiprocessing by having more than one physical processor.
 Multitasking
❑ Multitasking has the same meaning of multiprogramming but in a more general sense, as
it refers to having multiple (programs, processes, tasks, threads) running at the same
time. This term is used in modern operating systems when multiple tasks share a
common processing resource (e.g., CPU and Memory). At any time the CPU is executing
one task only while other tasks waiting their turn. The illusion of parallelism is achieved
when the CPU is reassigned to another task (i.e. process or thread context switching).
❑ There are subtle differences between multitasking and multiprogramming.
❑ A task in a multitasking operating system is not a whole application program but it can
also refer to a “thread of execution” when one process is divided into sub-tasks. Each
smaller task does not hijack the CPU until it finishes like in the older multiprogramming
but rather a fair share amount of the CPU time called quantum.
❑ Just to make it easy to remember, both multiprogramming and multitasking operating
systems are (CPU) time sharing systems. However, while in multiprogramming (older
OSs) one program as a whole keeps running until it blocks, in multitasking (modern OSs)
time sharing is best manifested because each running process takes only a fair quantum
of the CPU time.
 Cache memory
❑ Cache memory, also called CPU memory, is high-speed static random
access memory (SRAM) that a computer microprocessor can access more
quickly than it can access regular random access memory (RAM).

❑ It's a temporary storage. It resides within the processor chip. It's both very
fast as well as nearer to CPU than RAM.

❑ The main aim is to try to fill it with the data which might be needed again
soon. Hence it speeds up the computations if next time CPU finds the
required data in cache itself (& thus no need to search & fetch data from
slower RAM).

❑ There are various techniques to efficiently use the limited cache memory
like Least Recently Used (LRU), etc.

❑ It's of generally three types/levels, L1, L2 & L3. L1 is the fastest but
smallest. L3 is the largest but slowest.
 Introduction to BIOS
❑ The BIOS ROM
❑ All BIOS are contained in ROM in old days
❑ BIOS is now located in EEPROM chip
✓ Erased and rewritten by special programs called flash BIOS
❑ BIOS CMOS memory
✓ Provide a non-volatile storage for PC’s control information
✓ Need very little power to operate
✓ Powered by lithium battery
❑ Advantages of storing BIOS in ROM
✓ Code and data are readily available during booting
✓ BIOS content are not corrupted by errant applications
❑ BIOS hardware components
➢ BIOS ROM
✓ PC startup program (POST)
➢ BIOS CMOS memory
✓ House the configuration information of individual PC
 CMOS vs BIOS
❑ One of the main reasons why CMOS was chosen is because of its very low energy consumption.

❑ The CMOS chip is constantly powered and when the system is off, a CR-2032 battery takes over
the job to keep the information stored within.

❑ Once power is lost, the settings are also lost.

❑ On the other hand, the BIOS doesn’t need to be constantly powered as the code is stored in non-
volatile memory.

❑ It also runs for only a short period of time before handing control over to the true operating
system.

❑ Another difference between CMOS and BIOS is their importance.

❑ While the contents of CMOS are important, losing it is not really disastrous for the entire system.

❑ It can easily be restored by going to the menu during boot-up.

❑ The BIOS code is very important as without it, the computer would not be able to boot.

❑ To repair, the chip containing the BIOS needs to be removed and reprogrammed.
 Unified Extensible Firmware Interface

❑ The Unified Extensible Firmware Interface (UEFI) is a specification that

defines a software interface between an operating system and
platform firmware.

❑ In 2007, Intel, AMD, Microsoft, and PC manufacturers agreed on a

new Unified Extensible Firmware Interface (UEFI) specification.

❑ This is an industry-wide standard managed by the Unified Extended

Firmware Interface Forum, and isn’t solely driven by Intel.

❑ UEFI support was introduced to Windows with Windows Vista Service

Pack 1 and Windows 7.

❑ The vast majority of computers you can buy today now use UEFI
rather than a traditional BIOS.
Advantages of Unified Extensible Firmware
❑ This new standard avoids the limitations ofInterface
the BIOS.

❑ The UEFI firmware can boot from drives of 2.2 TB or larger—in fact, the theoretical limit is 9.4 zettabytes.

❑ That’s roughly three times the estimated size of all the data .

❑ That’s because UEFI uses the GPT partitioning scheme instead of MBR.

❑ It also boots in a more standardized way, launching EFI executables rather than running code from a drive’s master
boot record.

❑ Backward and forward compatibility.

❑ UEFI can run in 32-bit or 64-bit mode and has more addressable address space than BIOS, which means your boot
process is faster.

❑ UEFI setup screens support graphics and mouse cursor.

❑ UEFI is packed with other features. It supports Secure Boot, which means the operating system can be checked for
validity to ensure no malware has tampered with the boot process.
❑ It can support networking features right in the UEFI firmware itself, which can aid in remote troubleshooting and
configuration. With a traditional BIOS, you have to be sitting in front of a physical computer to configure it.

❑ It’s not just a BIOS replacement, either. UEFI is essentially a tiny operating system that runs on top of the PC’s
firmware, and it can do a lot more than a BIOS. It may be stored in flash memory on the motherboard
 UNINTERRUPTIBLE POWER SUPPLY (UPS)
COMMON POWER PROBLEMS
❑ What your computer expects to get from the power supply 230V AC, oscillating at 50
Hertz.
❑ A computer can tolerate slight differences from this specification, but a significant
deviation will cause the computer's power supply to fail.

❑ A UPS generally protects a computer against four different power problems:

✓ Voltage surges and spikes

➢ Short duration high voltage and high energy burst.
✓ Voltage sags
➢ Transient under voltage.
✓ Total power failure
➢ Times when a line goes down or a fuse blows somewhere on the grid or in the
building
✓ Frequency differences
➢ Times when the power is oscillating at something other than 50 Hertz