Analog Electronics

III Sem ECE

Instructor Info:
Dr. Rekha Verma, Asstt. Prof.
Microelectronics Division, Department of ECE
Indian Institute of Information Technology Allahabad
Room No 2122, CC-I
Email: [email protected]
Class Timings: Wed 9:00 – 11:00 am
Tutotial: Thu 5:00 - 7:00pm
Lab timings: Tue 3:00 - 5:00pm
 Syllabus

Books Recommended
1. J. Millman & C.C. Halkias - Integrated Electronics; Tata Mc-Graw Hill, Pearson Education.
2. Gayakwad R., “Op-amp and Linear Integrated Circuits”, 4th Ed.,Pearson Education.2005.
3. Microelectronics by Millman and Grabel, McGraw-Hill.
4. Robert Boylestad & L. Nashelsky - Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory, Prentice Hall.
5. Coughline, R.F. and Driscoll, F.F., “Operational Amplifier and Linear Integrated circuits”, 6th Ed., Prentice-Hall of India.2002
6. Floyd- Electronic Devices. Pearson Education

Pre-requisites:
1. Circuit Analysis and Synthesis
2. Electronic Devices and Circuits
 Course Evaluation:

Choice & Credit Linked Continuous Assessment and Award (CCLCAA)

3
Analog Electronics Lab (tentative list of experiments)

1. Op-Amp as an
i) Inverting amplifier
ii) Non- inverting amplifier.
2. Op-Amp as a
i) Differentiator
ii) Integrator.
3. Op-Amp as an
i) Adder
ii) Subtractor.
4. Op-Amp as a
i) Low Pass Filter
ii) High Pass Filter.
5. Op-Amp as a
i) Comparator
ii) Schmitt trigger.
6. Calculate the common mode rejection ratio of Op-Amp.
7. Design using 555
i) Astable multivibrator
ii) Monostable multivibrator
iii) Bistable multivibrator.
8. Plot gain-frequency characteristics of BJT amplifier with and without negative feedback in the emitter circuit and determine bandwidths,
9. Gain bandwidth products and gains at 1 kHz with and without negative feedback.
10. Application based project using Op-Amp/IC555 timer.
 Unit 1

Feedback Amplifiers
Feedback Amplifiers
 General Feedback Structure
 Properties of negative feedback
 Basic feedback Topologies
 Basic Amplifiers
 Feedback Topology: Series-Shunt, Shunt-shunt, Series-Series, Shunt-series
Feedback
 Determining the Loop Gain
 Stability Problem
 Nyquist plot
 Effect of Feedback on amplifier poles –Frequency Compensation
 Analysis of Transistor Feedback Amplifiers
Amplifiers
An ideal amplifier provides a stable output which is an amplified version of the
input signal.
• The gain and stability of this amplifier are not consistent due to changes in
ambient temperature, parameter variation and non linearity in the device.

Amplifier: An amplifier is a circuit that receives a signal at its input and delivers an
undistorted large version of the signal at its output.
Gain/Amplification (A): is the term used to describe the amount of amplification that
an amplifier is capable of. A = Output signal/Input signal
Use of Amplifier: Amplifiers are used in wireless communications and broadcasting,
and in audio equipment of all kinds.
 Introduction to Feedback

1. Feedback is used in virtually all amplifier system.

2. Invented in 1928 by Harold Black – engineer in Western Electric
Company
3. methods to stabilize the gain of amplifier for use in telephone
repeaters.
4. In feedback system, a signal that is proportional to the output is fed
back to the input and combined with the input signal to produce a
desired system response.
5. However, unintentional and undesired system response may be
produced.
Feedback Amplifier:
 Feedback is a technique where a proportion of the output of a system
(amplifier) is fed back to the input to for ma part of the system excitation.

Open loop Amplifier Close loop Amplifier

 There are 2 types of feedback amplifier:

 Positive feedback
 Negative feedback
 Positive (Regenerative) Feedback
• Positive feedback is the process when the output is added to the input, amplified
again, and this process continues.
• If the signal fed back is of the same polarity or in phase with the input signal, the
feedback is called positive feedback . So, the feedback signal increases the
magnitude of the amplifier input signal.
• It increases the voltage gain and causes the instability of an amplifier.

input A output
+

Example: PA system, oscillators

get feedback when you put the microphone in front of a speaker and the sound
gets uncontrollably loud (you have probably heard this unpleasant effect).
Negative Feedback
 If the signal fed back is of opposite polarity or out of phase by 180˚ (or odd
integer multiples of 180˚) with respect to the input signal, the feedback is
called negative feedback .
 The feedback signal reduces the magnitude of the amplifier input signal.
 It decreases the voltage gain.
 It is principally applied in amplifiers.
input A output

Example: Speed control, amplifiers (generally)

If the car starts to speed up above the desired set-point speed, negative
feedback causes the throttle to close, thereby reducing speed; similarly, if the
car slows, negative feedback acts to open the throttle and thus a stable speed
is maintained.
Advantages of Negative Feedback
1. Higher input resistance,
2. Lower output resistance,
3. Better stabilized voltage gain under the variation of parameters,
4. Improved frequency response,
5. More linear operation,
6. Reduced Noise, and
7. Reduced in non-linear distortion.

Disadvantages of Negative Feedback

1. Circuit Gain – overall amplifier gain is reduced compared to that of
basic amplifier.
 The Feedback Concept

Open loop gain

Now, closed loop gain

Basic Feedback Amplifier - Concept

Basic structure of a single - loop feedback amplifier

Signal Source:
Signal source is either a signal voltage Vs in series with a resistor Rs (a Thevenin ’s representation) or a
signal current Is in parallel with a resistor Rs (a Norton ’s representation).

Feedback Network:
The feedback network is usually a passive two-port network which may contain resistors, capacitors,
and inductors.

Sampling Network:
Two types of sampling networks can be used. These two sampling networks are:
Current or loop sampling: In this type of sampling system the output is sampled by connecting the
feedback network in series with the output.
Voltage or node sampling: In this type of sampling system the output is sampled by connecting the
feedback network in shunt across the output
Comparator or mixer network:
Mixer network circuit is either series (loop) input or shunt (node) input
connections.

A differential amplifier is often also used as the mixer.

Such an amplifier has two inputs and gives an output proportional to the
difference between the signals at the two inputs.
Classification of Amplifiers
Based on the voltage level, amplifiers can be classified into two categories as:
(a) Weak-signal amplifiers: Weak-signal amplifiers are used in wireless receivers, audio tape
players, and compact disc players. A weak-signal amplifier is designed to deal with
exceedingly small input signals, in some cases measuring only a few nano Volts (10-9 V).
(b) Power amplifiers: Power amplifiers are used in wireless transmitters, broadcast
transmitters, and hi-fi audio equipment. A power amplifier is designed to deal with large input
signals, in some cases measuring only a few volts/kV as well.

Based on the magnitudes of the input and output impedances of an amplifier relative to the
source and load impedances, respectively, amplifiers can be classified into four broad
categories as:
(a) Voltage amplifier,
(b) Current amplifier,
(c) Transconductance amplifier,
(d) Transresistance amplifier.
 Voltage Amplifier
A voltage amplifier is defined as an amplifier, which provides an output voltage proportional to the
input voltage, and the proportionality factor is independent of the magnitudes of the source
resistance (Rs ) and load resistance (RL ).

Fig. 1 Thevenin ’ s equivalent circuit of a voltage amplifier

If Ri is larger compared with Rs, i.e., (Ri >> Rs ), then Vi ≈ Vs .

If the external load resistance RL is large compared with the output resistance Ro of the amplifier (Ro << RL ),
then Vo ≈ AvVi ≈ AvVs . Hence, the output voltage is proportional to input voltage.

The symbol in Fig. 1 Av represents Av =Vo /Vi with RL = ∞, and hence represents the open-circuit voltage
amplification or voltage gain.
Current Amplifier
A current amplifier is defined as an amplifier, which provides an output current proportional to the input
current, and the proportionality factor is independent of the magnitudes of the source resistance (Rs ) and
load resistance (RL ).

Fig. 2 Norton’s equivalent circuit of a voltage amplifier

If the amplifier input resistance Ri is smaller compared with the source resistance Rs (Ri <<Rs ), then Ii ≈ Is .

If the external load resistance RL is smaller compared with the output resistance Ro of the amplifier (Ro >> RL
), then Io ≈ AiIi ≈ AiIs . Hence, the output current is proportional to input current.

An ideal current amplifier must have zero input resistance (i .e . Ri =0) and infinite output resistance (i .e . Ro
= ∞).
The symbol Ai in Fig. 2 represents Ai =Io /Ii with RL = 0, and hence represents the short-circuit current
amplification, or current gain.
 Transconductance Amplifier
A trans-conductance amplifier is defined as an amplifier, which provides an output current proportional to the
input voltage, and the proportionality factor is independent of the magnitudes of the source resistance (Rs)
and load resistance (RL).

Fig. 3: Transconductance amplifier

If the amplifier input resistance Ri is larger compared with the source resistance Rs (Ri >> Rs ), then Vi ≈ Vs .

If the external load resistance RL is smaller compared with the output resistance Ro of the amplifier (Ro >>
RL ), then Io ≈ GmVi ≈ GmVs . Hence, the output current is proportional to the input voltage.

An ideal trans-conductance amplifier must have infinite input resistance (i .e . Ri = ∞) and infinite output
resistance (i .e . Ro = ∞).

The symbol Gm in Fig.3 represents Gm = Io /Vi with RL = 0, and hence represents the
short-circuit transfer conductance (trans-conductance) or gain.
 Transresistance Amplifier
A transresistance amplifier is defined as an amplifier, which provides an output voltage proportional to the
input current, and the proportionality factor is independent of the magnitudes of the source resistance (Rs)
and load resistance (RL).

Fig. 4: Transconductance amplifier

If the amplifier input resistance Ri is smaller compared with The source resistance Rs (Ri <<Rs), then Ii ≈ Is .

If the external load resistance RL is large compared with the output resistance Ro of the amplifier (Ro << RL),
then Vo ≈ RmIi ≈ RmIs .

An ideal trans-conductance amplifier must have zero input resistance (i .e . Ri = 0) and zero output
resistance (i .e . Ro = 0).

The symbol Rm in Fig. 4 represents Rm = Vo /Ii with RL = ∞, and hence represents the open-circuit transfer
resistance (trans-resistance), or gain.
Transfer Ratio, or Gain:
The transfer ratio Vo /Vi is the voltage amplification, or the voltage gain, AV .

The transfer ratio Io /Ii is the current amplification, or the current gain, AI .

The transfer ratio Io /Vi is the transconductance GM and

Vo /Ii is the transresistance, RM .

Although GM and RM are defined as the ratio of two signals, one of these is a current and the

other is a voltage waveform. Hence the symbol GM or RM does not represent an

amplification in the usual sense of the word.
Nevertheless, it is convenient to refer to each of the four quantities AV , AI , GM, and RM as a
transfer gain of the basic amplifier without feedback and to use the symbol A to represent
any one of these quantities.
The symbol Af is defined as the ratio of output signal to the input signal of the
Close loop amplifier configuration and is called the transfer gain of the amplifier with
Basic Feedback Topology
Depending on the input signal (voltage or current) to be amplified and from the
output (voltage or current), amplifiers can be classified into four categories.
Depending on the amplifier category, one of four types of feedback structures should
be used.
(Type of mixing) (Type of Sampling)
• Series (Voltage) Shunt (Voltage)
• Series (Voltage) Series (Current)
• Shunt (Current) Shunt (Voltage)
• Shunt (Current) Series (Current)