SQL Basics

What is SQL?
• SQL stands for Structured Query Language. It is
used for storing and managing data in Relational
Database Management System (RDBMS).
• It is a standard language for Relational Database
System. It enables a user to create, read, update
and delete relational databases and tables.
• All the RDBMS like MySQL, Oracle, MS Access
and SQL Server use SQL as their standard
database language.
• SQL allows users to query the database in a
number of ways, using English-like statements.
What are the SQL?
SQL follows the following rules:
• Structure query language is not case sensitive.
Generally, keywords of SQL are written in uppercase.

• Statements of SQL are dependent on text lines. We can

use a single SQL statement on one or multiple text line.

• Using the SQL statements, you can perform most of the

actions in a database.

• SQL depends on tuple relational calculus and relational

algebra.
What is SQL Process?
• When an SQL command is executing for any RDBMS,
then the system figure out the best way to carry
out the request and the SQL engine determines
that how to interpret the task.

• In the process, various components are included.

These components can be optimization Engine, Query
engine, Query dispatcher, classic, etc.

• All the non-SQL queries are handled by the classic

query engine, but SQL query engine won't
handle logical files.
What is SQL Process?
What is Advantages of SQL?
• High speed
• No coding needed
• Well defined standards
• Portability
• Interactive language
• Multiple data view
What is SQL Datatype?
• SQL Datatype is used to define the values that a
column can contain.
• Every column is required to have a name and data
type in the database table.
SQL Commands
• SQL commands are instructions. It is used to
communicate with the database. It is also used
to perform specific tasks, functions, and queries of
data.

• SQL can perform various tasks like create a table, add

data to tables, drop the table, modify the table,
set permission for users.
Types of SQL Commands
• There are five types of SQL commands: DDL,
DML, DCL, TCL, and DQL.
Data Definition
Language (DDL)
• DDL changes the structure of the table like creating a
table, deleting a table, altering a table, etc.
• All the command of DDL are auto-committed that
means it permanently save all the changes in the
database.
• Here are some commands that come under DDL:
 CREATE
 ALTER
 DROP
 TRUNCATE
(DDL)- CREATE
CREATE It is used to create a new table in the database.

Syntax:
REATE TABLE TABLE_NAME (COLUMN_NAME
DATATYPES[,....]);

Example:
CREATE TABLE EMPLOYEE(Name VARCHAR2(20), Email
VARCHA R2(100), DOB DATE);
(DDL)- Drop
Drop: It is used to delete both the structure and record
stored in the table.

Syntax:
DROP TABLE ;

Example:
DROP TABLE EMPLOYEE;
(DDL)- ALTER
ALTER: It is used to alter the structure of the database. This
change could be either to modify the characteristics of an
existing attribute or probably to add a new attribute.

Syntax:
ALTER TABLE table_name ADD column_name COLUMN-definition; ALTER
TABLE MODIFY(COLUMN DEFINITION....);

Example:
ALTER TABLE STU_DETAILS ADD(ADDRESS
VARCHAR2(20)); ALTER TABLE STU_DETAILS MODIFY
(NAME VARCHAR2(20));
(DDL)- TRUNCATE
TRUNCATE: It is used to delete all the rows from the table and
free the space containing the table.

Syntax:
TRUNCATE TABLE table_name;

Example:
TRUNCATE TABLE EMPLOYEE;
Language
• DML commands are used to modify the database. It is
responsible for all form of CHANGESin the database.

• The command of DML is not auto-committed that

means it can't permanently save all the changes in the
database. They can be rollback.

Here are some commands that come under DML:

 INSERT
 UPDATE
 DELETE
Language - INSERT
INSERT: The INSERT statement is a SQL query. It is used to
insert data into the row of a table.
Syntax:
INSERT INTO TABLE_NAME (col1, col2,
col3,.... col N)
VALUES (value1, value2, value3, .... valueN);
OR
INSERT INTO TABLE_NAME VALUES (value1, value2, value3, .... valueN);

Example:
INSERT INTO XYZ (Author, Subject) VALUES ("Sonoo",
"DBMS");
Data Manipulation
Language - UPDATE
Update: This command is used to update or modify the value
of a column in the table.
Syntax:
UPDATE table_name SET [column_name1=
value1,...column_n ameN = valueN] [WHERE CONDITION]

Example:
UPDATE students
SET User_Name =
'Sonoo' WHERE
Student_Id = '3'
Data Control Language
DCL commands are used to GRANT and TAKE BACK
authority from any database user.

Here are some commands that come under DCL:

 Grant

 Revoke
Grant
GRANT: It is used to give user access privileges to a database.

Example:
GRANT SELECT, UPDATE ON MY_TABLE TO SOME_USER,
ANOT HER_USER;

REVOKE: It is used to take back permissions from the user.

Example:

REVOKE SELECT, UPDATE ON MY_TABLE FROM USER1,

USER2;
Data Query Language
DQL is used to fetch the data from the
database. It uses only one command:
SELECT
a. SELECT: This is the same as the projection operation of
relational algebra. It is used to select the attribute based
on the condition described by WHERE clause.

Syntax:
SELECT Column1,column-n FROM TABLES
expressions WHERE conditions;
Example:
S SELECT emp_nameFROM employee WHERE
age > 20;
SQL
Operator
SQL Comparison Operators:

Operator Description
+ It adds the value of both operands.

- It is used to subtract the right-hand operand from the left-hand

operand.

* It is used to multiply the value of both operands.

/ It is used to divide the left-hand operand by the right-hand

operand.

% It is used to divide the left-hand operand by the right-hand

operand and returns reminder.
SQL Arithmetic Operators
Operator Description

= It checks if two operands values are equal or not, if the values are
queal then condition becomes true.

!= It checks if two operands values are equal or not, if values are not
equal, then condition becomes true.

<> It checks if two operands values are equal or not, if values are not
equal then condition becomes true.

It checks if the left operand value is greater than right operand

>
value,
if yes then condition becomes true.
It checks if the left operand value is less than right operand
<
value, if
yes then condition becomes true.
It checks if the left operand value is greater than or equal to the
>=
right
operand value, if yes then condition becomes true.
SQL Arithmetic Operators

Operator Description

<= It checks if the left operand value is less than or equal to the right
operand value, if yes then condition becomes true.

!< It checks if the left operand value is not less than the right operand
value, if yes then condition becomes true.

!> It checks if the left operand value is not greater than the right operand
value, if yes then condition becomes true.
SQL Logical Operators
Operator Description

All It compares a value to all values in another value set.

AND It allows the existence of multiple conditions in an SQL statement.

ANY It compares the values in the list according to the condition.

Between It is used to search for values that are within a set of values.

IN It compares a value to that specified list value.

NOT It reverses the meaning of any logical operator.

OR It combines multiple conditions in SQL statements.

EXIST It is used to search for the presence of a row in a specified table.

LIKE It compares a value to similar values using wildcard operator.

The SQL LIKE Operator

The LIKE operator is used in a WHERE clause to

search for a specified pattern in a column.
There are two wildcards often used in conjunction
with the LIKE operator:
 The percent sign % represents zero, one, or
multiple characters
 The underscore sign _ represents one, single
charact
Select all customers that starts with the letter "a":
SELECT column1, column2, ...
FROM table_name
WHERE columnN LIKE pattern;
SELECT * FROM Customers
SQL Constraints

SQL constraints are used to specify rules for the

data in a table.
Constraints are used to limit the type of data that
can go into a table. This ensures the accuracy and
reliability of the data in the table. If there is any
violation between the constraint and the data action,
the action is aborted.
Constraints can be column level or table level.
Column level constraints apply to a column, and
table level constraints apply to the whole table.
 The following constraints are commonly used in SQL:

NOT NULL - Ensures that a column cannot have a

NULL value
UNIQUE - Ensures that all values in a column are
different
PRIMARY KEY - A combination of a NOT NULL and
UNIQUE. Uniquely identifies each row in a table
FOREIGN KEY - Prevents actions that would destroy
links between tables
CHECK - Ensures that the values in a column satisfies a
specific condition
DEFAULT - Sets a default value for a column if no value
is specified
SQL UNIQUE Constraint on CREATE TABL
The following SQL creates a UNIQUE constraint on the "ID" column when
the "Persons" table is created:

SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:

CREATE TABLE Persons (

ID int NOT NULL UNIQUE,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(255),
Age int
);
The following SQL creates a CHECK
constraint on the "Age" column when the
"Persons" table is created. The CHECK
constraint ensures that the age of a
person must be 18, or older:
CREATE TABLE Persons (
 ID int NOT NULL,
 LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
 FirstName varchar(255),
 Age int)
 CHECK (Age>=18) ALTER TABLE
Persons
ADD CHECK (Age>=18);
SQL DEFAULT on CREATE TABLE

The following SQL sets a DEFAULT value for the

"City" column when the "Persons" table is
created:
CREATE TABLE Persons (
 ID int NOT NULL,
 LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
 FirstName varchar(255),
 Age int,
 City varchar(255) DEFAULT 'Sandnes'
); ALTER TABLE Persons
ALTER City SET DEFAULT 'Sandnes';
SQL PRIMARY KEY on CREATE TABLE

The following SQL creates a PRIMARY KEY on the "ID" column when the "Persons" table is created:

CREATE TABLE Persons (

 ID int NOT NULL,
 LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
 FirstName varchar(255),
 Age int,
 PRIMARY KEY (ID)
);
 To allow naming of a PRIMARY KEY constraint, and for defining a
PRIMARY KEY constraint on multiple columns, use the following
SQL syntax:

 CREATE TABLE Persons (

 ID int NOT NULL,
 LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
 FirstName varchar(255),
 Age int,
 CONSTRAINT PK_Person PRIMARY KEY (ID,LastName)
 );
Example
SQL> CREATE TABLE EMPLOYEE
( EMP_ID INT NOT
NULL, EMP_NAME VARCHAR (25)
NOT NULL, INT
PHONE_NO NOT
ADDRESS CHAR NULL,
(30), PRIMARY
KEY (ID)
•
); DESC EMPLOYEE;
• DELETE FROM table_name WHERE condition
• DROP TABLE "table_name";
• SELECT * FROM table_name;
• INSERT INTO TABLE_NAME VALUES (value1, value2, value 3, .... Value N);
• INSERT INTO TABLE_NAME[(col1, col2, col3,.... col N)] VALUES (value1,
value2, valu e 3, .... Value N);
• UPDATE table_name SET column_name = value WHERE condition;
 SQL FOREIGN KEY Constraint
The FOREIGN KEY constraint is used to
prevent actions that would destroy links
between tables.
PersonI LastNam FirstNam Age
D e e

Persons
1 Hansen Ola 30
Table 2 Svendson Tove 23
3 Pettersen Kari 20
Order table
OrderID OrderNumbe PersonID
r
1 77895 3
2 44678 3
3 22456 2
4 24562 1
SQL FOREIGN KEY on CREATE TABLE
The following SQL creates a FOREIGN KEY on
the "PersonID" column when the "Orders" table
is created:
CREATE TABLE Orders (
 OrderID int NOT NULL,
 OrderNumber int NOT NULL,
 PersonID int,
 PRIMARY KEY (OrderID),
 FOREIGN KEY (PersonID) REFERENCES
Persons(PersonID)
);
Exam
ple:
• UPDATE table_name SET column_name = value1, column_name2 = value
WHERE condition;
• DELETE FROM table_name WHERE some_condition;
Views in SQL
• Views in SQL are considered as a virtual table. A view
also contains rows and columns.

• To create the view, we can select the fields from one

or more tables present in the database.

• A view can either have specific rows based on certain

condition or all the rows of a table.
Creating view
A view can be created using the CREATE VIEW statement. We
can create a view from a single table or multiple tables.
Syntax
CREATE VIEW view_name AS
SELECT column1, column2.....
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;

Creating View from a

single table
CREATE VIEW DetailsView AS
SELECT NAME, ADDRESS
FROM Student_Details
WHERE STU_ID < 4;
 tables
View from multiple tables can be created by simply
include multiple tables in the SELECT statement.
In the given example, a view is created named MarksView
from two tables Student_Detail and Student_Marks.

CREATE VIEW MarksView AS

SELECT Student_Detail.NAME, Student_Detail.ADDRESS,
Student_Marks.MARKS FROM Student_Detail, Student_Mark
WHERE Student_Detail.NAME = Student_Marks.NAME;

SELECT * FROM MarksView;

DROP VIEW view_name;
SQL Index
• Indexes are special lookup tables. It is used to retrieve
data from the database very fast.
• An Index is used to speed up select queries and where
clauses. But it shows down the data input with
insert and update statements. Indexes can be created
or dropped without affecting the data.
• An index in a database is just like an index in the back of
a book.

Create Index statement

CREATE INDEX index_name
ON table_name (column1, column2, ...);
Unique Index statement
Syntax
CREATE UNIQUE INDEX index_name ON table_name (column1,
colum
n2, ...);
Example
CREATE UNIQUE INDEX websites_idx ON websites (site_name);

Drop Index Statement

Syntax
DROP INDEX index_name;
Example
DROP INDEX websites_idx;
SQL Sub Query
A Subquery is a query within another SQL query and
embedded within the WHERE clause.
Important Rule:
• A subquery can be placed in a number of SQL clauses like WHERE clause, FROM
clause, HAVING clause.
• You can use Subquery with SELECT, UPDATE, INSERT, DELETE statements along
with the operators like =, <, >, >=, <=, IN, BETWEEN, etc.
• A subquery is a query within another query. The outer query is known as the
main query, and the inner query is known as a subquery.
• Subqueries are on the right side of the comparison operator.
• A subquery is enclosed in parentheses.
• In the Subquery, ORDER BY command cannot be used. But GROUP BY
command can be used to perform the same function as ORDER BY
command.
Statement
SQL subqueries are most frequently used with the Select
statement.
Syntax:
SELECT column_name
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name
expression operator
( SELECT column_name
from table_name
WHERE ... );

Example:
SELECT *
FROM EMPLOYEE WHERE
ID IN (SELECT ID FROM
EMPLOYEE WHERE SALARY
> 4500);
 Statement
• SQL subquery can also be used with the Insert statement. In the insert statement,
data returned from the subquery is used to insert into another table.
• In the subquery, the selected data can be modified with any of the
character, date functions.
Syntax:
INSERT INTO table_name (column1, column2, column3....)
SELECT * FROM table_name WHERE VALUE OPERATOR

Example:
INSERT INTO EMPLOYEE_BKP
SELECT * FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE ID IN (SELECT ID
FROM EMPLOYEE);
Statement
The subquery of SQL can be used in conjunction with the
Update statement. When a subquery is used with the Update
statement, then either single or multiple columns in a table
can be updated.
Syntax:
UPDATE table SET column_name = new_value WHERE VALUE OPERATOR (SELECT
COLUMN_NAME FROM TABLE_NAME WHERE condition);
Example:
Let's assume we have an EMPLOYEE_BKP table available which is backup of
EMPLOYEE table. The given example updates the SALARY by .25 times in the
EMPLOYEE table for all employee whose AGE is greater than or equal to 29.
UPDATE EMPLOYEE
SET SALARY = SALARY * 0.25
WHERE AGE IN (SELECT AGE FROM CUSTOMERS_BKP
WHERE AGE >= 29);
Statement
The subquery of SQL can be used in conjunction with the
Delete statement just like any other statements mentioned
above.
Syntax:
DELETE FROM TABLE_NAME WHERE VALUE OPERATOR
(SELECT COLUMN_NAME FROM TABLE_NAME WHERE
condition);
Example:
Let's assume we have an EMPLOYEE_BKP table available which is backup of
EMPLOYEE table. The given example deletes the records from the EMPLOYEE table for
all EMPLOYEE whose AGE is greater than or equal to 29.

DELETE FROM EMPLOYEE

WHERE AGE IN (SELECT AGE FROM EMPLOYEE_BKP
WHERE AGE >= 29 );
SQL Clauses
GROUP BY
• SQL GROUP BY statement is used to arrange identical data
into groups.
• The GROUP BY statement is used with the SQL
SELECT statement.
• The GROUP BY statement follows the WHERE clause
in a SELECT statement and precedes the ORDER BY
clause.
• The GROUP BY statement is used with aggregation
function.
SELECT column
SELECT COMPANY, COUNT(*)
FROM FROM PRODUCT_MAST GROUP
table_name BY COMPANY;
WHERE
conditions
GROUP BY
column ORDER BY
HAVING
• HAVING clause is used to specify a search condition for a
group or an aggregate.
• Having is used in a GROUP BY clause. If you are not
using GROUP BY clause then you can use HAVING
function like a WHERE clause
Syntax Example
SELECT column1, column2 FRO M
SELECT COMPANY, COUNT(*)
table_name
FROM PRODUCT_MAST GROUP
WHERE conditions
BY COMPANY HAVING
GROUP BY column1, column2
COUNT(*)>2;
HAVING conditions
ORDER BY column1, column2;
ORDER BY
• The ORDER BY clause sorts the result-set in ascending
or descending order.
• It sorts the records in ascending order by default.
DESC keyword is used to sort the records in
descending order.
Example
Syntax SELECT *
SELECT column1, column2
FROM table_name WHERE FROM
condition CUSTOMER
ORDER BY column1, column2... AS C|
DESC; ORDER BY
NAME; OR
SELECT *
FROM CUSTOMER
ORDER BY NAME
DESC;
The SQL WHERE Clause
 The WHERE clause is used to filter records.
 It is used to extract only those records that fulfill a specified
condition.
 Example Get your own SQL Server
 Select all customers from Mexico:
 SELECT * FROM Customers
 WHERE Country='Mexico'
SQL Aggregate Functions
COUNT FUNCTION
• COUNT function is used to Count the number of rows in a database
table. It can work on both numeric and non-numeric data types.
• COUNT function uses the COUNT(*) that returns the count of all the
rows in a specified table. COUNT(*) considers duplicate and Null.
Syntax
COUNT(*) or COUNT( [ALL|DISTINCT] expression )
Example
 SELECT COUNT(*) FROM PRODUCT_MAST;
 SELECT COUNT(*) FROM PRODUCT_MAST; WHERE RATE>=20;
 SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT COMPANY) FROM PRODUCT_MAST;
 SELECT COMPANY, COUNT(*) FROM PRODUCT_MAST GROUP BY COMPANY;
 SELECT COMPANY, COUNT(*) FROM PRODUCT_MAST GROUP BY COMPANY HAVING
COUNT(*)>2;
SUM FUNCTION
• Sum function is used to calculate the sum of all
selected columns. It works on numeric fields only.
Syntax
SUM() or SUM( [ALL|DISTINCT] expression )
Example
SELECT SUM(COST) FROM PRODUCT_MAST;
SUM() with WHERE
SELECT SUM(COST) FROM PRODUCT_MAST WHERE QTY>3;
SUM() with GROUP BY
SELECT SUM(COST) FROM PRODUCT_MAST WHERE
QTY>3 GROUP BY COMPANY;
SUM() with HAVING
SELECT COMPANY, SUM(COST) FROM PRODUCT_MAST GROUP BY COM PANY
HAVING SUM(COST)>=170;
AVG FUNCTION
• The AVG function is used to calculate the average
value of the numeric type. AVG function returns the
average of all non-Null values.
Syntax
AVG() or AVG( [ALL|DISTINCT] expression )

Example
SELECT AVG(COST) FROM PRODUCT_MAST;
MAX FUNCTION
• MAX function is used to find the maximum value of a certain column. This
function determines the largest value of all selected values of a column.
Syntax
MAX() or MAX( [ALL|DISTINCT] expression )
Example
SELECT MAX(RATE) FROM PRODUCT_MAST;

MIN FUNCTION
• MIN function is used to find the minimum value of a certain column. This
function determines the smallest value of all selected values of a column

Syntax
MIN() or MIN( [ALL|DISTINCT] expression )
Example
SELECT MIN(RATE) FROM PRODUCT_MAST;
SQL JOIN
SQL, JOIN means "to combine two or more tables". In SQL, JOIN clause is used to
combine the records from two or more tables in a database.

Types of SQL JOIN

 INNER JOIN

 LEFT JOIN

 RIGHT JOIN

 FULL JOIN
INNER JOIN
In SQL, INNER JOIN selects records that have matching values in both tables as
long as the condition is satisfied. It returns the combination of all rows from both
the tables where the condition satisfies.
Syntax
SELECT table1.column1, table1.column2,
table2.column1,.... FROM table1
INNER JOIN table2
ON table1.matching_column = table2.matching_column;

Example
SELECT EMPLOYEE.EMP_NAME,
PROJECT.DEPARTMENT FROM EMPLOYEE
INNER JOIN PROJECT
ON PROJECT.EMP_ID = EMPLOYEE.EMP_ID;
LEFT JOIN
The SQL left join returns all the values from left table and the matching values from
the right table. If there is no matching join value, it will return NULL.
Syntax
SELECT table1.column1, table1.column2, table2.column1,.... FROM
table1
LEFT JOIN table2
ON table1.matching_column = table2.matching_column;

Example
SELECT EMPLOYEE.EMP_NAME, PROJECT.DEPARTMENT FROM
EMPLOYEE
LEFT JOIN PROJECT
ON PROJECT.EMP_ID = EMPLOYEE.EMP_ID;
RIGHT JOIN
In SQL, RIGHT JOIN returns all the values from the values from the rows of
right table and the matched values from the left table. If there is no matching in
both tables, it will return NULL.
Syntax
SELECT table1.column1, table1.column2,
table2.column1,.... FROM table1
RIGHT JOIN table2
ON table1.matching_column = table2.matching_column;

Example
SELECT EMPLOYEE.EMP_NAME,
PROJECT.DEPARTMENT FROM EMPLOYEE
RIGHT JOIN PROJECT
ON PROJECT.EMP_ID = EMPLOYEE.EMP_ID;
FULL JOIN
In SQL, FULL JOIN is the result of a combination of both left and right outer join. Join
tables have all the records from both tables. It puts NULL on the place of matches not
found.
Syntax
SELECT table1.column1, table1.column2, table2.column1,....
FROM table1
FULL JOIN table2
ON table1.matching_column = table2.matching_column;

Example
SELECT EMPLOYEE.EMP_NAME,
PROJECT.DEPARTMENT FROM EMPLOYEE
FULL JOIN PROJECT
ON PROJECT.EMP_ID = EMPLOYEE.EMP_ID;
SQL Set Operation
The SQL Set operation is used to combine the two or
more SQL SELECT statements

Types of Set Operation

Union
UnionAl
l
Intersect
except
Union Operation
• The SQL Union operation is used to combine the result of two or more SQL
SELECT queries.
• In the union operation, all the number of datatype and columns must be same in
both the tables on which UNION operation is being applied.
• The union operation eliminates the duplicate rows from its resultset.

Syntax
SELECT column_name FROM table1
UNION
SELECT column_name FROM table2;
Example
SELECT * FROM
First UNION
SELECT * FROM
Second;
 Intersect Operation
• It is used to combine two SELECT statements. The Intersect operation returns the
common rows from both the SELECT statements.
• In the Intersect operation, the number of datatype and columns must be the same.
• It has no duplicates and it arranges the data in ascending order by default.

Syntax
SELECT column_name FROM table1
INTERSECT
SELECT column_name FROM table2;
Example
SELECT * FROM
First INTERSECT
SELECT * FROM Second;
THANKS!!!