Structured Query

Language
The Structured Query Language(SQL) is a language that enables you
to create and operate on relational databases,which are sets of
related information stored in tables.

The original version was developed at IBM’s San Jose Research

Laboratory(now the Almanden Research Center).This language
originally called Sequel was implemented as part of the System R
Project in early 1970s.

The Sequel language has evolved since then and its name is changed
to SQL. In 1986, The American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
published an SQL standard that was updated again in 1992.
Processing Capabilities of SQL

 Data Definition Language (DDL)- includes commands for defining

relation schemas,deleting relations,creating indexes and modifying
relation schemas.

Data Manipulation Language – includes commands to insert,delete and

modify tuples in the database.

Embeded Data Manupulation language-designed for use within

general-purpose programming language such as PL/1,Cobol,Pascal and
C.

View definition – includes commands for defining views.

Authorization –includes commands for specifying access rights to

relations and views.

Integrity-provies forms of integrity checking.

Transaction control-includes commands for specifying the beginning

and ending of transactions along with commands to have a control over
transaction processing.
Data Dictionary : A Data Dictionary is a file that contains “metadata”
i.e. data about data.

Data Types:Each field has a data

type :char,Decimal,Numeric,integer,smallint,float,double,real
 SQL COMMANDS

CREATE TABLE: To create a table

Syntax:

Create Table<table name>(column name1 data type, column name2

data type ……);

Example:
Create Table student(rollno integer,name char(20),stream char(30));

While creating a table few constraints can be put -

A constraint is a condition or check applicable on a field or set of fields.
Various constraints are :
Unique constraint – to ensure that no two rows have the same value in
the specified columns.
Example :
Create Table student(rollno integer UNIQUE,name char(20),stream
char(30));

Primary Key constraint –declares a column as the primary key of the

table
Example :
Create Table student(rollno integer Primary key,name char(20),stream
char(30));

Default constraint –when the user does not define a value, it takes the
default value.

Create Table student(rollno integer,name char(20),stream char(30) ,fees

decimal default 1000);

Check constraint – limits the values that can be inserted into a column
of a table.

Create Table student(rollno integer,name char(20),stream char(30),fees

decimal check fees>=1000);

The constraints can be used together.

NOT NULL used to denote that the columns will not have NULL values.
The Insert Command
Used to insert the rows(records)/tuples in the table.
Syntax:
Insert into table name [<column list>] values (<value 1,value2….);
Example :
Insert into student values(1,’Raman’,’Humanities’,5000,’Shakti’);
A new row is added.

The Select Command

Rollno Name Stream Fees
Used to make queries on the databases.
1 Rajiv Verma Science 5000
Syntax:
2 Anita Mehta Commerce 4500
Select<column name> from table ;
3 Mohan Science 5000
Example : Table : Student Kapoor

4 Jasmine Humanities 4000

Query : To display the roll number and name of all the students:
Select rollno,name from Student;

To display the roll number name and stream for students who have
opted for ‘Science ‘ stream

Select rollno,name,stream from student where stream= “Science”;

(where clause used to set condition on the query)
The result will be:
Rollno Name Stream
1 Rajiv Verma Science
3 Mohan Kapoor Science

To display all the records from the table student :

Select * from student;

Select all the records from the table.

Query using Logical operators –And,or,not

To display the names of students who have stream as ‘Commerce’ and

fees more than 4000.

Select name from Student where stream = “Commerce” and fees >4000;

Will display the following result:

Name
Anita Mehta

To display the names of the students who have stream as either

‘Commerce’ or ‘Humanities’
Select name from student where stream = “Commerce” or stream =
“Humanities”;

To display the names and roll numbers of students who have opted for
stream other than humanities.
Select rollno,name from student where not stream = “Humanities’;
Query based on range
To display the name,stream and fees of those students whose fees is
more than 2000 and less than4000

Select name,stream,fees where fees between 2000 and 4000;

Or
Select name,stream,fees where fees>30 and fees <50;
Query based on a list:
To display the roll numbers,names of students who belong to house
‘Ekta’,’Shakti’,’Pragati’
Select rollno,name from student where house
in(‘Ekta’,’Shakti’,’Pragati’);

To display the names of the students who do not belong to Pragati or

Ekta.
Select rollno,name from student where house not in(‘Pragati’,’Ekta’);
Exercise :
Q. Study the following table and answer the query that follow:

Table : Employee

Employee Empname Department Designation Salary

number
1 Ashish Verma HR Manager 20000

2 Deepa kapoor Accounts Assistant 7000

3 Neha Sales Receptionist 5500

4 Gaurav Sales Manager 35000

Mehta
5 Ranjan Finance Assistant 10000
Manager
6 Rajesh Accounts CA 350000

7 Dinesh Finance Assistant 6000

1. Display the names,designation of all the managers.
2. Display the employee number,name,department and salar y of
those employees who are in Sales department.
3. Display the employee number ,name of those employees who are
either in HR or in Accounts department.
4. Display the names of those employee whose salary is above
10000.
5. Display the names,designation and salary of those employee who
are not in Accounts department.
6. Display the employee number and salary of those employees
whose salary is in the range of 7000 and 20000.
Condition based on pattern matches
Like and not like

Patterns are described using two special characters:

Percent(%) – matches any substring.
Underscore(_)- matches a character.
Example:
To display the name of the students whose name starts with ‘M’
Select name from student where name like ‘M%’;
Output:
Name
Mohan Kapoor
To display the name of students whose name has 5 characters and ends
with the letter ‘D’

Select name from student where name Like ‘____D’;

To display the names of those employees whose department does not

start with ‘A’
Select name from employee where department not like ‘A%’;

ORDER BY CLAUSE
The ORDER BY clause allows sorting of query results by one or more
columns.
The sorting can be done either in ascending or descending order,the
default order is ascending.

Syntax:
SELECT <column name> from table name where <condition/predicate>
order by column name;

The order by clause is always put at the end of the syntax.

To display the names of the students in alphabetical order.

Select name from student order by name;

To display the names of the students in decreasing order.

Select name from student order by name DESC;

DESC arranges the names in decreasing order of names.

Aggregate functions:

avg – to compute the average value

min – to find the minimum value

max – to find the maximum value

Sum – to find the total value

Stddev – to find the standard deviation

Count – to count non-null values in a column

Count(*) – to count the total number of rows in a table

Variance - to compute the variance of values in column.

To find the total fees of the students belonging to ‘Science’ stream

Select sum(fees) from student where stream = ‘Science’;

To find the maximum fees of the student

Select max(fees) from student;

To count the number of students

Select count(*) from student;

To count different number of streams

Select count(Distinct stream) from student;
 Group By clause
This clause is used to divide the table into
groups.

Example :
To calculate the number of employees in each
department for employees .
Select count(*) from employee group by department;
Output
Department Count(*)
HR 1
Accounts 2
Sales 2
Finance 2
Employee
Employee Empname
Empname Department
Department Designation
Designation Salary
Salary
number
number

11 Ashish
AshishVerma
Verma HR
HR Manager
Manager 20000
20000

22 Deepa
Deepa kapoor
kapoor Accounts
Accounts Assistant
Assistant 7000
7000

33 Neha
Neha Sales
Sales Receptionist
Receptionist 5500
5500

44 Gaurav
Gaurav Sales
Sales Manager
Manager 3500
35000
Mehta
Mehta
55 Ranjan
Ranjan Finance
Finance Assistant
Assistant 10000
10000
Manager
Manager
66 Rajesh
Rajesh Accounts
Accounts CA
CA 3500
350000

77 Dinesh
Dinesh Finance
Finance Assistant
Assistant 6000
6000
Group by using the aggregate functions

To display the total salary of the employees in each department

Select department,sum(salary) from employee group by department

Output
Department sum
HR 20000
Accounts 10500
Finance 9000
Sales 16000

Having Clause:
The Having clause is used to place conditions in the group by clause
The Create View command
A View is a virtual table. It is created from another existing table called the
base table.

Create view stu As select * from student ;

Create view stu(rollno,name ,stream)As select * from student where

stream = “Humainties”;

Alter table
To add the column in the table:

Syntax:
Alter table<table name>ADD <column name><data type><size>;
Example:
Alter Table student Add Busroute integer;
Will add a new column name busroute to the table.
Drop table
This command is used to delete the entire table

Syntax
DROP TABLE <table name>

Example :
To delete the student table
DROP TABLE student;

DROP VIEW
To delete a view
DROP view stu;
DROP VIEW does not delete the base table

Drop Table deletes the table and the view.

UPDATE command
To modify the tuples in the table
Syntax: Update student set fees =fees +200;
Increases the fees of all the students by `200 .
Example:
To calculate the average salary of employees for ‘sales’ department.

Select avg(salary) from employees group by department having

department = ‘sales’;

The Delete command

The Delete command is used to delete a row or tuple from the table.

Syntax:
Delete From <tablename> [where <condition / predicate];

Delete from student ;

Deletes all the rows from the table;

Delete from student where stream = “Humanities’;

Deletes the rows of those students who have stream as Humanities.
Exercise
Q. Refer to the Employee table:

Answer the following queries:

1. Display the name and salary of the employees according to their
department.
2. Display the average salary of employees in the accounts
department.
3. Display the name and salary of the employee with maximum
salary.
4. Delete the record of Receptionist.
5. Create a view with employee number and designation from the
employee table.
6. Increase the salary of employees in Finance department by `1000
.
7. Add a new column Grade in the table.
 QUERIES ON TWO TABLES

Whenever the query on the two tables is done there should be a common
primary key so that the data can be related.
Example :
Table 1 : Employee

Employee
Employee Empname
Empname Department
Department Designation
Designation Salary
Salary
number
number

11 Ashish
AshishVerma
Verma HR
HR Manager
Manager 20000
20000

22 Deepa
Deepa kapoor
kapoor Accounts
Accounts Assistant
Assistant 7000
7000

33 Neha
Neha Sales
Sales Receptionist
Receptionist 5500
5500

44 Gaurav
Gaurav Sales
Sales Manager
Manager 35000
35000
Mehta
Mehta
55 Ranjan
Ranjan Finance
Finance Assistant
Assistant 10000
10000
Manager
Manager
66 Rajesh
Rajesh Accounts
Accounts CA
CA 350000
350000

77 Dinesh
Dinesh Finance
Finance Assistant
Assistant 6000
6000
 Table 2 : Empinfo

Empnumber Casual leaves Earned leaves Grade

1 10 20 B

2 5 12 B

3 8 20 A

5 10 15 B
6 3 18 A

7 2 20 C

To display the employee number,name,department,salary ,number

of casual leaves and grade from the employee and empinfo
tables.
Syntax:

Select <column names>from table 1,table 2 where table1.primary

key = table 2.primary key;
Select
employeenumber,name,department,salary,casualleaves,grade from
employee,empinfo where employee.employeenumber =
empinfo.empnumber;
Output :

Employee nam Depar Salary casual grade

number
e tment leaves
1 Ashish HR 20000 10 B
Verma

2 Deepa Accounts 7000 5 A

kapoor
3 Neha Sales 5500 8 B

5 Ranjan Finance 10000 10 A

6 Rajesh Accounts 350000 3 C

7 Dinesh Finance 6000 2