BASIC CONCEPTS

IN
PSYCHOLOGICAL
STATISTICS
 Intended learning
outcomes:
After this lecture, you will be able to:

1. Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of

the basic concepts in statistics.
2. Discuss and demonstrate the methods of data
collection.
3. Explain and execute the techniques used in
sampling.
4. Identify and implement the different ways of
organizing and presenting data.
 Statistics
Statistics
> a set of mathematical procedures for organizing,
summarizing, and interpreting information.

General purposes:

> Statistics are used to organize and summarize the

information so that the researcher can see what happened in
the research study and can communicate the results to others.

> Statistics help the researcher to answer the questions that

initiated the research by determining exactly what general
conclusions are justified based on the specific results that were
obtained.
 Populations and Samples
Population (N)
> set of all the individuals of interest in a particular study.

Sample (n)
> set of individuals selected from a population, usually intended to
represent the population in a research study

Parameter
> a value, usually a numerical value, that describes a population.

Statistic
> a value, usually a numerical value, that describes a sample.

Sampling error
> the naturally occurring discrepancy, or error, that exists
between a sample statistic and the corresponding population
parameter.
 Populations and Samples

Slovin’s sampling formula:

Where:
n = sample size
N = population
e = estimated margin of error (acceptable error)

*The maximum margin of error that may be used in

5 percent (0.05). That would give a confidence
level of 95%
 Populations and Samples

Example:

A researcher wants to determine the academic

stress of the students in his school. However,
they are not capable to test all the students on
account of their big numbers with 5,000
populations. What is the estimate sample size
using 5% acceptable margin of error?
 Variables and Data

Variable
> a characteristic or condition that changes or has
different values for different individuals.

Data (plural)
> measurements or observations

Datum (singular)
> a single measurement or observation and is
commonly called a score or raw score.

Data set
> a collection of measurements or observations
 Descriptive and Inferential
Statistics
Descriptive statistics
> statistical procedures used to summarize, organize,
and simplify data.
> raw scores are organized or summarized in a form
that is more manageable (tables and graphs).

Inferential statistics
> consist of techniques that allow us to study samples
and then make generalizations about the populations
from which they were selected.
 Sampling Methods

Probability Sampling
> each individual from the population has a specifiable
probability (equal chance) of selection
> random process or random selection
> produces unbiased results

Nonprobability Sampling
> individual probabilities cannot be known; no equal
chances
> increased chances for sampling bias and thus,
biased sample
> produces biased results
 Probability Sampling

Simple random sampling

> most basic; each individual has an equal chance of
being selected
> process: (1) define the population, (2) list all the
members, (3) use a random process (example:
fishbowl technique)
> principal methods: (1) sampling with
replacement, (2) sampling without replacement

Advantages: easy to understand and utilize.

Disadvantages: difficult to utilize when dealing with

large population
 Probability Sampling
Stratified random sampling
> useful when population is divided into
subgroups/strata and each of the different subgroups is
adequately represented
> process: (1) identify specific subgroups, (2) select equal-
sized random samples using the steps from simple random
sampling, (3) combine subgroup samples

Advantages: accuracy of the population; simple random

sampling may be use in selecting respondents per strata.

Disadvantages: values of the stratification variable may not

be easily available for all units in the population.
 Probability Sampling
Systematic random sampling
> less random than simple random sampling but produces
higher representativeness
> process: (1) begins by listing all individuals and randomly
picking a starting point, (2) uses the kth interval formula: K =
N/n
Where: K = interval width
N = population
n = sample size

Advantages: easy to administer in the field, and the sample

is spread evenly over the population

Disadvantages: less random than simple random sampling

 Probability Sampling

Cluster sampling
> useful when individuals are clustered in pre-
existing groups
> random selection of groups

Advantages: (1) relatively quick and easy, (2)

measurement of individuals can be done in groups

Disadvantages: (1) independence of individual scores

 Nonprobability Sampling

Convenience sampling
> researchers use as participants those individuals
who are easy to get
> selection is based on availability and willingness
to respond
> easier, less expensive, saves time

Purposive sampling
> judgmental, selective or subjective sampling
> relies on the judgment of the researcher in
selecting participants
> includes the use of a set of criteria
 Nonprobability Sampling

Snowball sampling
> referral system; initial sample members are asked
to refer other individuals who meet the criteria
> people who share the same characteristics know
each other; useful for participants who are hard to
find

Quota Sampling
> useful when population is divided into
subgroups/strata
> subgroups/strata are usually based on variables that
are relevant to the study
 Research Variables

Variable
> a characteristic or condition that changes or has
different values for different individuals.

Constructs
> internal attributes or characteristics that cannot
be directly observed but are useful for describing
and explaining behavior.
 Discrete and Continuous
Variables
Discrete variable
> consists of separate, indivisible categories
> no values can exist between two
neighboring categories.
> number of students attending class, gender (male
or female)

Continuous variable
> there are an infinite number of possible
values that fall between any two observed
values.
> divisible into an infinite number of fractional parts.
> height, weight, temperature
 Scales of Measurement

Nominal
> consists of a set of categories that have
different names
> measurements label and categorize observations,
but do not make any quantitative distinctions
between observations.
> academic programs, gender, religion

Ordinal
> consists of a set of categories that are organized
in an ordered sequence.
> measurements rank observations in terms of size
or magnitude.
> t-shirt sizes (small, medium, and large), SES
(upper, middle, lower).
 Scales of Measurement

Interval
> consists of ordered categories that are all
intervals of exactly the same size.
> zero point is arbitrary and does not indicate a
zero amount of the variable being measured.
> temperature (celsius & fahrenheit), intelligence,
academic stress, motivation.

Ratio
> an interval scale with the additional feature of an
absolute zero point (complete absence).
> temperature (kelvin), height, weight, time periods
 Scales of Measurement

Interval
> consists of ordered categories that are all
intervals of exactly the same size.
> zero point is arbitrary and does not indicate a
zero amount of the variable being measured.
> temperature (celsius & fahrenheit), intelligence,
academic stress, motivation.

Ratio
> an interval scale with the additional feature of an
absolute zero point (complete absence).
> temperature (kelvin), height, weight, time periods
 Methods of Data Collection
Tests and Questionnaires
> forces a response from an individual, and responses are
indicative of an individual’s skills, knowledge, attitudes, etc.
> true-false tests, essay examinations, attitude scales, short-
answers tests, mid-terms, finals, personality inventory, etc.

Observation
> allows researchers to experience a specific aspect of social
life and get a firsthand look at a trend, institution or behavior
> uses checklist, rating scale, anecdotal forms, mechanical
recordings

Interviews
> interaction that involves the researcher and the
participant(s) in which questions are presented in
person, over the telephone or electronically
> can be structured, semi-structured, or unstructured.
 Presentation of Data

Descriptive statistics
> statistical procedures used to summarize,
organize, and simplify data.

Frequency distribution
> an organized tabulation of the number of
individuals located in each category on the scale of
measurement.

Frequency distribution table

> table that shows the scores or group of scores and
their corresponding frequencies.
 Frequency Distribution

Example 1:

The following set of scores of n = 20 was obtained

from a 10-point quiz in Psychological Statistics.
Organize these scores by constructing a frequency
distribution table.

8, 9, 8, 7, 10, 9, 6, 4, 9, 8,
7,8, 10, 9, 8, 6, 9, 7, 8, 8
 Frequency Distribution

Example 2:

Thirty (30) psychology students answered a test

which measures their academic motivation with 0
being the lowest score possible and 10 being the
highest score possible. Organize the scores using a
frequency distribution table.

8, 7, 4,10, 8, 6, 8, 9, 9, 7, 3, 7,
6, 5, 0, 9, 10, 7, 7, 3, 6, 7, 5, 2,
1, 6, 7, 10, 8, 8
 Frequency Distribution

Steps:

1. Make a list down the page of each possible value,

from highest to lowest.
2. Go one by one through scores, making a mark for
each next to its value on your list.
3. Make a table showing how many times each value
on your list is used.
4. Figure the percentage of scores for each value.
 Frequency Distribution

Proportion
> measures the fraction of the total group that is
associated with each score.

Percentage
> an amount of something often expressed as a
number out of 100.
 Frequency Distribution

Proportion
> measures the fraction of the total group that is
associated with each score.

Percentage
> an amount of something often expressed as a
number out of 100.
 Frequency Distribution
Grouped Frequency Distribution Table
> presenting groups of scores rather than individual values.

Class intervals
> range of values in a grouped frequency table

Steps:
1. Determine the ff:
Range (Highest Score - Lowest Score) or R = Xmax - Xmin
Class Size (K = 1 + 3.3 log (n))
Class Width/Interval (CW = R/K).
2. There should be no overlapping elements in the class
intervals.
3. Show or include all classes.
4. There should be enough classes to accommodate all data.
5. The classes must be equal in width.
 Frequency Distribution

Example 3:

The following are the scores obtained by third year

psychology students during the midterm
examination in Abnormal Psychology. Analyze the
data by using a grouped frequency table including
the percentage.

30, 36, 42, 36, 30, 52, 36, 34, 36, 33,
30, 32, 35, 32, 37, 34, 36, 31, 35, 20,
24, 46, 23, 31, 32, 45, 34, 37, 28, 40,
34, 38, 40, 52, 31, 33, 15, 27, 36, 40
 Frequency Distribution

Example 3:

The following are the scores obtained by third year

psychology students during the midterm
examination in Abnormal Psychology. Analyze the
data by using a grouped frequency table including
the percentage.

30, 36, 42, 36, 30, 52, 36, 34, 36, 33,
30, 32, 35, 32, 37, 34, 36, 31, 35, 20,
24, 46, 23, 31, 32, 45, 34, 37, 28, 40,
34, 38, 40, 52, 31, 33, 15, 27, 36, 40
 Presentation of Data

Histogram
> if data consist of numerical scores that have been
measured on an interval or ratio scale
> process: (1) list the numerical scores along the x-
axis, (2) the height of the bar (y-axis) corresponds to
the frequency.
 Presentation of Data

Frequency polygons
> if data consist of numerical scores that have been
measured on an interval or ratio scale
> process: (1) list the numerical scores along the x-
axis, (2) a dot is centered above each score so that
the vertical position (y-axis) of the dot corresponds
to the frequency, (3) continuous line is drawn from
dot to dot to connect the series of dots.
 Presentation of Data

Bar graphs
> if data are nominal and ordinal
> essentially the same as a histogram, except that
spaces are left between adjacent bars.
> process: (1) list the categories of measurement
along the x-axis, (2) draw a bar above each category
so that the height of the bar (y-axis) corresponds to
the frequency for the category.
Questions?
References

Gravetter, F. J., & Wallnau, L. B.

(2017). Statistics for the
Behavioral Sciences (10th ed.).
Cengage Learning
SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT
(50 PTS)
Module 1
Part 1: (20pts.)
1. Look for 20 research titles on the internet (google scholar).
2. Identify the variables used for each study.
3. Determine the scales of measurement for each variable.

Example:
Title: Self-esteem and body esteem:
Effects of gender, age, and weight

Variables:
Self esteem – Interval
Body esteem – Interval
Gender – Nominal
Age – Ratio
Weight – Ratio
Activity:
1. Provide the following for each given data set:
• Frequency distribution table
• Graph
• Interpretation
2. You may write the table, interpretation, and graph on
a clean sheet of paper.
3. Take a picture of it OR transfer/type it on MS word and
submit it via email.
The HR administered a job satisfaction scale to their fifty
(50) employees. With 0 being the lowest score possible
and 10 being the highest score possible, organize the
following data:
9 4 6 6 0
8 1 7 7 2
Provide the following: 4 2 5 4 3
• Frequency distribution table
5 5 4 6 4
• Graph 3 9 5 3 3
• Interpretation 2 7 6 3 5
1 8 3 3 3
3 5 6 5 4
4 4 8 6 2
5 3 1 2 3
The following are the scores on the self-esteem scale
obtained by respondents diagnosed with anorexia
nervosa. With 0 being the lowest score possible and 10
being the highest score possible, organize the following
data: 1 2 2 5 1
2 2 6 4 2
1 1 5 1 3
Provide the following: (10 pts) 3 2 2 2 3
• Frequency distribution table 4 1 1 2 2
• Analysis 2 2 3 3 3
• Graph 4 3 3 3 2
3 4 2 3 1
4 2 3 2 2
5 1 2 3 3
The following are the scores of first year psychology
students during their final examination on Understanding
the Self.
34 35 24 33 23
Provide the following: 23 34 22 44 23
• Frequency distribution table 18 36 35 45 42
• Graph 15 37 34 34 23
45 38 37 48 34
• Interpretation
45 47 38 46 50
43 49 38 46 46
Range (Highest Score - Lowest Score) or R = X –X
max min
43 15 29 44 34
Class Size (K = 1 + 3.3 log (n))
Class Width/Interval (CW = R/K).
23 19 44 34 44
35 21 43 44 47