MIT Art Design and Technology University

MIT School of Computing, Pune

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
First Year Engineering
23CSE1104-Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Class - FY.(SEM-I)

Unit-I - D.C. CIRCUITS AND A.C. CIRCUITS

Prof. V. A. Patil
Dr. Nitish Das
AY 2024-2025 SEM-I
UNIT-I - D.C. CIRCUITS AND A.C. CIRCUITS (CO1)
Main Topic-1:
Classification of network, Ohm's law, KCL, KVL, network simplification
using star-delta / delta-star transformations, mesh analysis, network theorems
(Superposition and Thevenin).
Main Topic-2: Generation of alternating voltages, fundamentals of ac
circuits, behaviour of pure R, L, C in ac circuits.
Main Topic-3: concept of phasor and its representation, series RL, RC and
RLC circuits.

CO1:Understand and apply knowledge of circuit laws and network theorems

to solve electrical networks.

Prerequisite:
The Students should have knowledge of Mathematics, Physics
and fundamentals of semiconductor physics.

Text Book:
1. S. K. Bhattacharya “Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering”,
Pearson Publication (Second Edition)
Reference Book
2. R.K. Rajput, “Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering”,
3. V. K. Mehta and Rohit Mehta, “Principles of Electronics”, S. Chand
Publication
What is Electrical Engineering?
• Electrical engineering is the branch of engineering which deals with the
generation, transmission, distribution and utilization of electrical energy.
• Concerned with study and design of electrical machines.
• The field of electrical engineering provides solutions for problems in various
fields from telecommunications to space programs.
• Basically, the electrical engineering is concerned with the large-scale
operation of electrical power.
• Electrical engineering involves the study and application of electricity,
electromagnetism and power electronics.
• An electrical engineer studies about circuit analysis, power circuit design,
power generation, transmission and distribution, electrical machines and
power electronics, utilization of electricity and much more.
What is Electronics Engineering?
• Electronics engineering is the field of engineering which deals with the
utilization of electronic components such as transistors, diodes,
integrated circuits, etc. & to design electronic circuits.
• Electronics engineering basically a sub-domain of electrical
engineering.
• In general, the electronics engineering involves the set of electronic
devices that work on small voltage levels and have ability to perform
control and switching operations of electricity for a particular
application.
• Electronics engineer studies about analog electronics, digital
electronics, power electronics, signals and systems, solid state devices,
embedded systems, analog and digital communication systems, and
much more.
Difference between Electrical and Electronics Engineering
• At a first glance , the two branches
appear to be closely related because
they both researches the applications of
electricity and electromagnetism to
fulfil their primary engineering
objective .
• Electrical engineering typically focuses
on large scale power systems, while
electronics engineering primarily
focuses on small scale electronic
devices and applications.
• Electronic refers to study of electrons
while electrical refers to the study of
electrical power or charge.
• However both branches deal with
electricity.
 Difference between AC and DC current
• There are two types of electric current.
• Direct current (DC) and Alternating current (AC).
• Direct current:
○ Electricity always flows in a certain direction.
○ In direct current, the voltage is always constant
• Alternating current (AC)
○ The positive and negative sides are constantly switched periodically and the direction of the flow of electricity
changes accordingly. This is the flow of electricity obtained from a generator or outlet. The electricity produced at
power plants and sent to homes is also transmitted as alternating current.
○ The voltage periodically changes from positive to negative and from negative to positive, and the direction of the
current also periodically changes accordingly.
• The diagram below shows the flow of DC and AC electricity.
Active and passive
Network:
• In a linear network the
relation between the input
and output is linear, it’s
just that simple. Similarly,
the verse is the non-linear
network that is in the non-
linear network the relation
between the input and
output is non linear
 • Time invariant and the time variant network:

• Let’s assume that we have one network, and in this network, we are applying
excitation E1 and at the response, we are getting Response R1.
• Presently the network can be called time invariant if the response R 1 is
independent of the time at which this excitation is applied.
• If this response R1 is independent of the time at which this excitation is applied
then we can say that the network is time invariant.
• A system is said to be a time-variant system if its input /output characteristics
change with time.
 Circuit Definitions
• Node or Junction – any point where 2 or more circuit elements are
connected together
• Wires usually have negligible resistance
• Each node has one voltage (w.r.t. ground)
• Branch – a circuit element between two nodes
• Loop – a collection of branches that form a closed path returning to the
same node without going through any other nodes or branches twice
• Mesh - A mesh is a closed path in the circuit, which does not contain any
other close path inside it.

12
Resistance: Series combination

13
Resistance: Parallel combination

14
Ohm’s Law
• Ohm’s law states that the voltage across a conductor is directly
proportional to the current flowing through it, provided all physical
conditions and temperatures remain constant.
• Mathematically, this current-voltage relationship is written as,
V=IR
• In the equation, the constant of proportionality, R, is called Resistance and
has units of ohms, with the symbol Ω.
• The same formula can be rewritten in order to calculate the current and
resistance respectively as follows:
I=V/R
R=V/I
Ohm’s Law
• Ohm’s Law Problem:
Example 1: If the resistance of an electric iron is 50 Ω
and a current of 3.2 A flows through the resistance. Find
the voltage between two points.
Solution:
we use the following formula to calculate the value of V:
V=I×R
Substituting the values in the equation,
we get V = 3.2 A × 50 Ω = 160 V
 Calculating Electrical Power Using
Ohm’s Law
• The rate at which energy is converted from the electrical
energy of the moving charges to some other form of energy
like mechanical energy, heat energy, energy stored in
magnetic fields or electric fields, is known as electric power.
• The unit of power is the watt.
• The electrical power can be calculated using Ohm’s law and
by substituting the values of voltage, current and resistance.
Calculating Electrical Power Using
Ohm’s Law

Formula to find power:

When the values for voltage and resistance are given,

When the values for current and resistance are given,

When the values for voltage and current are given,

Ohm’s Law
The main applications of Ohm’s law are:
• To determine the voltage, resistance or current of an electric circuit.
• Ohm’s law maintains the desired voltage drop across the electronic
components.
• Ohm’s law is also used in DC ammeter and other DC shunts to divert the
current.
Limitations of Ohm’s Law :
• Ohm’s law is not applicable for unilateral electrical elements like diodes and
transistors as they allow the current to flow through in one direction only.
• For non-linear electrical elements with parameters like capacitance,
resistance etc. the ratio of voltage and current won’t be constant with
respect to time making it difficult to use Ohm’s law.
Kirchhoff’s Law (KCL)
• Gustav Kirchhoff, a German physicist observed that these were particular
instances of two general conditions fundamental to the analysis of any
electrical network. There conditions may be stated as follows:
• First (current) law: At any instant the algebraic sum of the current at a
junction in a network is zero. Different signs are allocated to currents held
to flow towards the junction and to those away from it.
Sign convention: Currents entering the node are positive, currents leaving
the node are negative.
 Kirchhoff’s Law (KCL)
The algebraic sum of the currents entering (or leaving) a node is
zero.
Entering:

Leaving:

The sum of the currents entering a node is equal to the sum of the
currents leaving a node.

21
Kirchhoff’s Law (KVL)

Second (voltage) law: At any instance in a closed loop, the algebraic

sum of the e.m.f’s acting round the loop is equal to the algebraic sum of
p.d.s round the loop.
E = V1+V2+V3

22
 Voltage divider rule
• A series circuit acts as a voltage divider as it divides the total supply voltage
into different voltages across the circuit elements. Figure.2 shows a voltage
divider circuit in which the total supply voltage V has been divided into
voltages V1 and V2 across two resistances R1 and R2. Although, the current
through both resistances is same, i.e., I.

From equations of voltage division rule, it may be said that the voltage across a
resistor in a series circuit is equal to the product of the value of that resistor and
the total supply voltage, divided by the total resistance of the series resistors.

23
Voltage divider rule
• According to Ohm’s law,
V1=IR1andV2=IR2
• Let R is the total resistance of the circuit, and it is
given by,
R=R1+R2⋅⋅⋅(1)
Also, from the circuit, we have,
V=IR=I(R1+R2)⋅⋅⋅(2)
• But
I=V1R1=V2R2⋅⋅⋅(3)
• Therefore, from equations (2) & (3), we finally get,
• V=(V1/R1)(R1+R2)
• ∴V1=V R1/(R1+R2)⋅⋅⋅(4)
• Similarly,
• V=V2 /R2(R1+R2)
• ∴V2=VR2/(R1+R2)⋅⋅⋅(5)
 Voltage divider rule
In Fig. a 24-V battery connected across a series combination of three resistors.

25
 Current divider rule
• A parallel circuit acts as a current divider as it divides the total
circuit current in its all branches. Figure1 shows a current divider
circuit in which the total circuit current I has been divided into
currents I1 and I2 in two parallel branches with
resistances R1 and R2. Although, we can notice that the voltage drop
across both resistances is same, i.e., V.

• From the equations, we may state that the current in any of the
parallel branches is equal to the ratio of opposite branch resistance
to the sum of all resistances, multiplied by the total circuit current.
26
Current divider rule
• According to Ohm’s law,
I1=V/R1andI2=V/R2
• Let R is the equivalent resistance of the circuit, and it is given by,
R=R1R2/R1+R2⋅⋅⋅(1)
• Also, from the circuit, we get,
I=VR=V×((R1+R2)/R1R2)⋅⋅⋅(2)
• But, we know that the voltage across both resistances is same.
∴V=I1 R1=I2 R=⋅⋅⋅(3)
• Hence, from equations (2) & (3), we finally get,
I=I1R1((R1+R2/R1R2)=I1((R1+R2)/R2)
∴I1=IR2/(R1+R2)⋅⋅⋅(4)
• Similarly,
I=I2R2((R1+R2)/R1R2)=I2((R1+R2)/R1)
∴I2=IR1/(R1+R2)⋅⋅⋅(5) 27
 Current divider rule
• Find the currents I1 and I2 in the parallel circuit shown in Figure

28
 Mesh Analysis

• Identify the total number of meshes in the circuit

network.
• Assign mesh currents to each mesh.
• Develop the KVL equation in each mesh.
• Solve the KVL equations to find the mesh currents.
29
 KVL problem
• By using Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) / Mesh analysis find the
current flowing through a 5 Ω resistor.

30
 Nodal Analysis
• Identify the nodes in a circuit.
• For each node assume that the currents are
leaving the node.
• An incorrect assumption will still yield a
correct voltage as long as KCL is correctly
applied.
• Set up node equations.
• Solve node equations to obtain node voltages.
31
 KCL problem
• By using Kirchhoff’s Current law (KCL) / Nodal analysis
Calculate Node Voltages and Branch Currents in the given
circuit. • Solution: There are 2 nodes: 0:
ground, 1: non-reference node
• Step1. Node voltage (v1 ) is
assigned. Also direction of
branch currents are marked.
• Step2. Apply KCL to node 1
• Step3. Apply Ohm’s Law to KCL
equations.

32
 KCL problem/Nodal analysis
• By using Kirchhoff’s Current law (KCL) / Nodal analysis
Calculate Node Voltages and Branch Currents in the given
circuit.
Now, from v1 we can find the branch
currents (i1 , i2 and i3 )

• Ohm’s Law to KCL equation at Node 1

33
 KVL problem/Mesh analysis
• By using Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) / Mesh analysis find the
current flowing through a 5 Ω resistor.

34
NEED OF STAR & DELTA
• In solving networks by Kirchhoff’s laws, difficulty is experienced due to a large
number of simultaneous equations to be solved
• Such complicated networks can be simplified by replacing star by delta and vice
versa.

35
Star to Delta conversion

36
 Star to Delta conversion
resistances of star network as RA = 6 Ω, RB = 18 Ω and RC = 3 Ω.

the resistances of delta network as R1 = 10 Ω, R2 = 60 Ω and

R3 = 30 Ω, which are equivalent to the resistances of the
given star network.

37
Delta To Star conversion

38
Delta To Star conversion

resistances of delta network as R1 = 10 Ω, R2 = 60 Ω and R3 = 30 Ω.

39
 • Solved Examples Problems On Star-Delta Transformation Or Conversion

• Ques1- Find the equivalent resistance between A & B in the given

network.

Step 1: Above network can also be represent as below:-

40
 • Step 2 :Now, I am going to solved this network by using delta to
star conversion as shown in the figure given below:-

Problem continued....

• Step 3:For the value of new star connected resistance are finding through direct formula of delta to star
conversion (using equations 5, 6 and 7) as shown below

41
Problem continued....

So, RAB / Requivalent = R1 + R2 + R3

= 4Ω + 3.88Ω + 1.77Ω
= 9.65Ω Answer

42
Superposition Theorem
• Statement: In any linear, active, bilateral network having more than one
source, the response across any element is the sum of the responses
obtained from each source considered separately and all other sources
are replaced by their internal resistance.
• In other words, it can be stated as if a number of voltage or current
sources are acting in a linear network, the resulting current in any branch
is the algebraic sum of all the currents that would be produced in it when
each source acts alone while all the other independent sources are
replaced by their internal resistances.
• The superposition theorem is used to solve the network where two or
more sources are present and connected.
• It is only applicable to the circuit which is valid for the ohm’s law (i.e.,
for the linear circuit).
 Steps to solve problem using
Superposition theorem
• Step 1 – Take only one independent source of voltage or current and
deactivate the other sources.
• Step 2 – In the circuit diagram B shown above, consider the source E1
and replace the other source E2 by its internal resistance. If its internal
resistance is not given, then it is taken as zero and the source is short-
circuited.
• Step 3 – If there is a voltage source than short circuit it and if there is a
current source then just open circuit it.
• Step 4 – Thus, by activating one source and deactivating the other
source find the current in each branch of the network. Taking the
above example find the current I1 ’, I2 ’and I3 ’.
• Step 5 – Now consider the other source E2 and replace the source E1
by its internal resistance r 1 as shown in the circuit diagram C.
• Step 6 – Determine the current in various sections, I1 ’’, I2 ’’ and I3 ’’.
• Step 7 – Now to determine the net branch current utilizing the
superposition theorem, add the currents obtained from each individual
source for each branch.
• Step 8 – If the current obtained by each branch is in the same direction
then add them and if it is in the opposite direction, subtract them to
obtain the net current in each branch.
• The actual flow of current in the circuit C will be given by the
equations shown below:

Thus, in this way, we can solve superposition theorem.

Find the current through 3 Ω resistor using superposition theorem.

The equivalent or total resistance is

obtained as below,
⇒RT = 5 + (3*6/9) = 7 Ω

By applying Ohm’s law,

● Step 1: To find I1. ⇒ IT = V/RT = 20/7 = 2.857 A

Consider the 20 V voltage source alone. Short circuit the other

Now, the current through 3 Ω resistor is
voltage source.
determined by using current division
rule. It is given by,
⇒ I1 = IT*(6/6+3) = 2.857*0.667 =
1.904 A
Find the current through 3 Ω resistor using superposition theorem.
Problem continued....

● Step 2: To find I2.

Consider the 40 V voltage source alone. Short circuit the other voltage source.

Hence the equivalent or total resistance is obtained as below,

By superposition theorem, the total current is
determined by adding the individual currents
⇒RT = 6 + [(3*5)/(3+5)] = 7.875 Ω
produced by 20 V and 40 V.
By applying Ohm’s law, Therefore, the current through 3 Ω resistor is :
⇒IT = V/RT = 40/7.875 = 5.079 A I1 + I2 = 1.904 + 3.174 = 5.078 A

Now, the current through 3 Ω resistor is determined by using current division rule. It is given
by,
⇒I2 = IT*(5/5+3) = 5.079*0.625 = 3.174 A
Thevenin’s Theorem
• Any linear electric network or a complex circuit with current and
voltage sources can be replaced by an equivalent circuit containing of a
single independent voltage source VTH and a Series Resistance RTH.

• VTH = Thevenin’s Voltage

• RTH = Thevenin’s Resistance

48
Steps to Analyze an Electric
Circuit using Thevenin’s Theorem
1. Open the load resistor.
2. Calculate / measure the open circuit voltage. This is the Thevenin Voltage (VTH).
3. Open current sources and short voltage sources.
4. Calculate /measure the Open Circuit Resistance. This is the Thevenin Resistance
(RTH).
5. Now, redraw the circuit with measured open circuit Voltage (VTH) in Step (2) as
voltage source and measured open circuit resistance (RTH) in step (4) as a series
resistance and connect the load resistor which we had removed in Step (1). This is
the equivalent Thevenin circuit of that linear electric network or complex
circuit which had to be simplified and analyzed by Thevenin’s Theorem. You have
done.
6. Now find the Total current flowing through load resistor by using the Ohm’s Law:
7. IT = VTH / (RTH + RL).
49
Ques 1: Find current flowing through 1 Ω resistor.

50
Problem continued....
Ques 1: Find current flowing through 1 Ω resistor

51
 Unit I

D.C. CIRCUITS AND A.C. CIRCUITS

• Generation of alternating voltages,

• Fundamentals of ac circuits,
• Behaviour of pure R, L, C in ac circuits
CURRENT
• The current whose magnitude and direction is constant w.r.t.
time is called direct current.
• Current is independent of time.
ALTERNATING CURRENT
• The current which changes periodically both in magnitude and direction
w.r.t. is called alternating current.
• Magnitude and direction changes with time.
• AC consists of positive half cycle & negative half cycle.
AC FUNDAMENTALS
• Instantaneous Value: The value of an alternating quantity at a
particular instant of time is called instantaneous value.
• Instantaneous voltage and current are denoted by e and i.

55
• Time Period: Time taken by an alternating quantity to complete its one
cycle is called time period. Unit is second.

• Frequency: Number of cycles completed by an alternating quantity per

second is called frequency. Unit is Hertz (Hz).
• f = 1/T
• Amplitude: The maximum value attained by an alternating
quantity during positive or negative half cycle is called
amplitude. It is denoted by Em or Im.
• Angular frequency: It is expressed in radians per second.
Denoted by ω.
• ω = 2πf = 2π/T
• θ = ωt = 2πft
EQUATION OF ALTERNATING
QUANTITY
• e = Em.Sinθ
• e = Em.Sinωt
• e = Em.Sin2πft
• e = Em.Sin(2πt/T)

• i = Im.Sinθ
• i = Im.Sinωt
• i = Im.Sin2πft
• i= Im.Sin(2πt/T)

58
An alternating current of frequency 60 Hz has a maximum value of 12 Amp.
1. Write down the equation for instantaneous value.
2. Find the value of current after 1/360 second.
3. Time taken to reach 9.6 Amp. for the first time.

We know that I = 12 sin 2πft

= 12 sin 2 x π x 60 x t
= 12 sin (120 x π x 1/360)
= 12 sin (120 x 180 x 1/360)
So I = 12 sin 60
So I = 10.39 A
Now for second equation we have
9.6 = 12 x sin 2 x π x 60 x t
96 = 12 x sin 2 π x 60 t
96/12 = sin 2 π x 60 t
2 π x 60 t = sin^-1 0.8
= 0.927 rad
Now t = θ / 2πf
= 0.927 / 2 π x 60
= 0.00245 secs
• Average Value: The arithmetic average of all the values of an alternating
quantity over one cycle is called its average value.

• For Symmetrical waveforms, the average value calculated over one cycle
becomes equal to zero because the positive area cancels the negative area. Hence
for symmetrical waveforms, the average value is calculated for half cycle.

•I avg = 2 Im / π
= 0.637 Im
•V avg = 2 Vm / π
= 0.637 Vm
• RMS or Effective Value: RMS value of an alternating quantity is given by that
steady current which when flowing through a given circuit for a given time produces
the same amount of heat as produced by alternating current which when flowing
through the same circuit for same time.
• Irms = Im /√2
• = 0.707 Im
• Vrms = Vm /√2
= 0.707 Vm

• Form Factor: Form Factor of an alternating quantity is defined as the ratio of rms
value to the average value.
• Kf = rms value / average value
• Kf = 0.707 Im / 0.637 Im
= 1.11 61
• Peak Factor: Peak Factor of an alternating quantity is defined as the ratio of
maximum value to the rms value.
•K p = maximum value / rms value
•K p = Im / 0.707 Im
= 1.414

Example:
• The waveform of a voltage has form factor of 1.15 and peak factor of 1.5. If the
maximum value of voltage is 4500 volt.
Calculate average value and rms value.

• Ans:
• Vrms = 3000 volts

• Vavg = 2608.69 volts

62
Phasor Diagrams
An alternating quantity can be represented using
• i) Waveform
• ii) Equations
• iii) Phasor
A sinusoidal alternating quantity can be represented by a rotating line called
a Phasor.

A phasor is a line of definite length rotating in anticlockwise direction at a

constant angular velocity
Phasor Diagrams
• The waveform and equation representation of an alternating current is as
shown. This sinusoidal quantity can also be represented using phasors.
In phasor form the above wave is written as

• Draw a line OP of length equal to Im. This line OP rotates

in the anticlockwise direction with a uniform angular
velocity ω rad/sec and follows the circular trajectory shown
in figure.
• At any instant, the projection of OP on the y-axis is given
by OM=OP sinθ = Im sinωt. Hence the line OP is the
phasor representation of the sinusoidal current.
Phase
• Phase is defined as the fractional part
of time period or cycle through
which the quantity has advanced
from the selected zero position of
reference
• Phase of +Em is π/2rad or T/4 sec
• Phase of -Em is 3π/2rad or 3T/4 sec
Phase Difference
• When two alternating quantities of the
same frequency have different zero points,
they are said to have a phase difference.
The angle between the zero points is the
angle of phase difference.
In Phase
• Two waveforms are said to be in phase, when the phase difference between
them is zero. That is the zero points of both the waveforms are same.
• The waveform, phasor and equation representation of two sinusoidal
quantities which are in phase is as shown.
• The figure shows that the voltage and current are in phase.
Lagging
• In the figure shown, the zero point of the current waveform is after
the zero point of the voltage waveform. Hence the current is lagging
behind the voltage.
• The waveform, phasor and equation representation is as shown.
Leading
• In the figure shown, the zero point of the current waveform is after
the zero point of the voltage waveform. Hence the current is lagging
behind the voltage.
• The waveform, phasor and equation representation is as shown.
Phasor Concept
• A phasor diagram is used to show the phase relationships
between two or more sine waves having the same frequency.

• Every phasor in the diagram will have the same angular velocity
because they represent sine waves of identical frequency.

• The length of the each phasor arm is directly related to the

amplitude of the wave it represents, the angle between the
phasors is the same as the angle of phase difference between the
sine waves.
 AC Through Pure
Resistance
• i = V/R = Vm Sinωt / R
• i = (Vm / R)Sinωt
Compare it with standard equation
• i = Im Sin(ωt + ɸ)
• So, Im = Vm /R and ɸ = 0
• Thus in a purely resistive
circuit current is in phase
with applied voltage.

71
AC Through Pure • I = V/ Xc , Xc = 1/ ωC
Capacitance • I = ωVC
• This leads the applied voltage by 90 o
• V = Vm sin ωt then i = Vm. Sin(ωt + π/2)
• Q = CV = C. Vm Sinωt
• i = dq/dt = d(C. Vm Sinωt)/dt
• i = C Vm. Cosωt.ω
• i = Vm. Sin(ωt + π/2) / (1/ωC)
• Compare it with i = Im.Sin(ωt + ɸ)
• Im = Vm / (1/ωC) = Vm / XC and ɸ = 90 deg.
• XC = 1/ωC = 1/2πfC = Capacitive Reactance
• Thus in a purely capacitive circuit current leads the voltage by 90 deg.

72
AC THROUGH PURE INDUCTANCE

• Im = Vm/ωL = Vm/ XL and ɸ = -90 deg.

• XL = ωL = 2πfL = Inductive Reactance
• i = Vm.Sin(ωt – π/2)/ωL
• Thus in a purely inductive circuit current lags the
voltage by 90 deg.

73
Phasor diagram of series RLC Circuit
• In the RLC Series circuit
• XL = 2πfL and XC = 1/2πfC
• When the AC voltage is
applied through the RLC
Series circuit the resulting
current I flows through the
circuit, and thus the voltage
across each element will be:
• VR = IR that is the voltage
across the resistance R and is
in phase with the current I.
• VL = IXL that is the voltage
across the inductance L and it
leads the current I by an angle
of 90 degrees.
• VC = IXC that is the voltage
across capacitor C and it lags
the current I by an angle of 90
degrees.
 Steps to draw the Phasor Diagram
•
of the RLC Series Circuit
Take current I as the reference as shown in the figure above
• The voltage across the inductor L that is VL is drawn leads the current I by a 90-degree angle.
• The voltage across the capacitor c that is V c is drawn lagging the current I by a 90-degree angle because in
capacitive load the current leads the voltage by an angle of 90 degrees.
• The two vector VL and VC are opposite to each other.

• Where
It is the total opposition offered to the flow of current by an RLC Circuit and is known as Impedance of
the circuit.

Phase Angle
• From the phasor diagram, the value of phase angle will be
 The three cases of RLC Series
Circuit
• When XL > XC, the phase angle ϕ is positive. The circuit behaves as RL
series circuit in which the current lags behind the applied voltage and the
power factor is lagging.

• When XL < XC, the phase angle ϕ is negative, and the circuit acts as a
series RC circuit in which the current leads the voltage by 90 degrees.

• When XL = XC, the phase angle ϕ is zero, as a result, the circuit behaves
like a purely resistive circuit. In this type of circuit, the current and voltage
are in phase with each other. The value of the power factor is unity.
Thank You
23,25,26,28,29,30,31,32,3
3,37,38,39,41,43,45,48,
51,52,53,55,56,58,59
77