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Python Programming
ing Problem Solving Approach

Reema Thareja

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 CHAPTER 1
Introduction to
Computers and
Problem Solving 2

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 What is a Computer?
A computer is an electronic machine that takes instructions and performs
computations based on those instructions.
Data is a collection of raw facts or figures.
Information comprises processed data to provide answers to ‘who’, ‘what’, ‘where’,
and ‘when’ type of questions.
Knowledge is the application of data and information to answer ‘how’ part of the
question.
Instructions: Commands given to the computer that tells what it has to do are
instructions.
Programs: A set of instructions in computer language is called a program.
Software: A set of programs is called software. 3

Hardware: A computer and all its physical parts are known as © OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS 2017. ALL RIGHTS
hardware.
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 First Generation of Computers (1942 – 1955)

Hardware Technology: Manufactured using thousands of vacuum tubes.

Software Technology: Programming was done in machine language or assembly
language.
Used for: Scientific applications
Examples: ENIAC, EDVAC, EDSAC, UNIVAC I, IBM 701
Highlights: • They were the fastest calculating device of those times.
• Computers were too bulky and required a complete room for storage.
• Highly unreliable as vacuum tubes emitted a large amount of heat and burnt
frequently.
• Required air-conditioned room for installation.
• Costly 4

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• Difficult to use RESERVED.
 Second Generation of Computers (1955 – 1964)

Hardware Technology: Manufactured using thousands of transistors.

Software Technology: Programming was done in high level language.
Used for: Scientific and commercial applications
Examples: Honeywell 400, IBM 7030, CDC 1604
Highlights: • Faster, smaller, cheaper, reliable, and easier to use than the first
generation computers.
• Consumed 1/10th the power consumed by first generation computers.
• Bulky in size and required a complete room for its installation.
• Dissipated less heat than first generation computers but still required Ac room
• Costly
• Difficult to use 5

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• Required constant maintenance RESERVED.
 Third Generation of Computers (1964 – 1975)

Hardware Technology: Manufactured using thousands of integrated circuits.

Software Technology: Programming was done in high level language.
Used for: Scientific, commercial and interactive applications
Examples: IBM 360/370, PDP-8, PADP-11, CDC6600
Highlights: • Faster, smaller, cheaper, reliable, and easier to use than the second
generation computers.
• They consumed less power than second generation computers.
• Bulky in size and required a complete room for its installation.
• Dissipated less heat than second generation computers but still required AC room.
• Costly
• Easier to use and upgrade. 6

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 Fourth Generation of Computers (1975 – 1989)

Hardware Technology: Manufactured using Large Scale and Very Large Scale integrated
circuits.
Software Technology: Programming was done in high level language.
Used for: Scientific, commercial, interactive and network applications
Examples: IBM PC, Apple II, TRS-80, VAX 9000, CRAY-1, CRAY-2, CRAY-X/MP
Highlights: Faster, smaller, cheaper, powerful, reliable, and easier to use than the
previous generation computers

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 Fifth Generation of Computers (1975 – 1989)
Hardware Technology: Manufactured using Ultra Large Scale integrated circuits. Use of
Internet became widespread. Very powerful mainframes, desktops, portable laptops,
smartphones are being used commonly. Super computers use parallel processing
techniques.
Software Technology: Programming was done in high level language.
Used for: Scientific, commercial, interactive, network and multimedia applications
Examples: IBM notebooks, Pentium PCs, SUM workstations, IBM SP/2, Param
supercomputer
Highlights: • Faster, smaller, cheaper, powerful, reliable, and easier to use.
• Speed of microprocessors and the size of memory are growing rapidly.
• High-end features available on mainframe computers in the fourth generation are now
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• Consume less power than computers of prior generations.
 Characteristics of Computer
Speed: The speed of the computer is usually given in nano second and pico second,
where
1 nano second = 1 × 10–9 second and 1 pico second = 1 × 10–12 second
Accuracy: Computer never makes mistakes. It always gives accurate results provided
that correct data and set of instructions are input to it.
Automatic: Computers are automatic devices that can perform without any user
intervention
Diligence: Computer never gets tired. It can continually work for hours without creating
any error.
Versatile: Versatile means flexible. Today, computers are being used in our daily lives in
different fields. 9

Memory: Computers have internal memory (storage space) as well asUNIVERSITY

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 Classification of Computer
Supercomputers: Supercomputer is the fastest, most powerful, and most expensive
computer. A single supercomputer can support thousands of users at the same time.
They are mainly used for weather forecasting, nuclear energy research, aircraft design,
automotive design, online banking, controlling industrial units, etc. Some examples of
supercomputers are CRAY-1, CRAY-2, Control Data CYBER 205, and ETA A-10.
Mainframe Computers: Mainframe computers are large-scale computers. They are very
expensive and need a very large clean room with air conditioning. Mainframes can also
support multiple processors. They are typically used as servers on the World Wide Web.
They are also used in organizations such as banks, airline companies, and universities.
Minicomputers: Minicomputers are smaller, cheaper, and slower than mainframes.
Minicomputers are used in business, education, hospitals, government organizations,
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etc. While some minicomputers can be used only by a single user, others are specifically
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designed to handle multiple users simultaneously. Minicomputers can also be used as
 Classification of Computer
Microcomputers: Microcomputers or PCs are very small and cheap. They can be
classified into the following categories:
• Desktop can be placed flat on a desk or table. It is widely used in homes and offices.
• Laptops are small microcomputers that can easily fit inside a briefcase. They are very
handy and can easily be carried from one place to another.
• Workstations are single-user computers. Their processing speed matches that of a
minicomputer or mainframe. They have advanced processors, more RAM and storage
capacity than PCs. Therefore, they are more expensive and powerful than a normal
desktop computer.
• Network Computers have less processing power, memory, and storage than a desktop.
They are designed to be used as terminals in a networked environment. For example,
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to access data stored on a network. RESERVED.
 Basic Applications of Computer
• Communication • Business and Industry • Decision Support Systems
• Hospitals • Expert System
• Desktop Publishing • Simulation • Find jobs on the Internet
• Government • Geology • Find a suitable match for a
• Traffic Control • Astronomy boy or girl
• Legal System • Education • Read news and articles online
• Retail Business • Weather Forecasting • Find one’s batchmates
• Sports • Online Banking • Send and receive greetings
• Music • Industry and
• Movies Engineering
• Travel and Tourism • Robots 12

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 Stored Program Concept
All digital computers are based on the principle of stored program concept, which was
introduced by Sir John von Neumann in the late 1940s. The following are the key
characteristic features of this concept:
• Before any data is processed, instructions are read into memory.
• Instructions are stored in the computer’s memory for execution.
• Instructions are stored in binary form (using binary numbers—only 0s and 1s).
• Processing starts with the first instruction in the program, which is copied into a
control unit circuit. The control unit executes the instructions.
• Instructions written by the users are performed sequentially until there is a break in
the current flow.
• Input/ Output and processing operations are performed simultaneously. While data
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is being read/written, the central processing unit (CPU) executes another program in
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the memory that is ready for execution.
 Components and Functions of Computer System
Input: process of entering data and instructions (also known as programs) into the computer
system.
Storage: Process of saving data and instructions permanently in the computer so that it can
be used for processing.
Primary Storage also known as the main memory is that storage area which is directly
accessible by the CPU at a very fast speed. It is used to store the data and program, the
intermediate results of processing and the recently generated results.
Secondary Storage also known as secondary memory is cheaper, non-volatile and used to
permanently store data and programs of those jobs which are not being currently executed
by the CPU.
Processing: The process of performing operations on the data as per the instructions
specified by the user (program) is called processing. 14

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Output: Process of giving the result of data processing to the outside world (external to the
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Components and Functions of Computer System

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 Concept of Hardware and Software
Hardware: All the physical parts that can be touched are called hardware.
Software: The hardware needs a software (a set of programs) to instruct what has to be
done. A program is a set of instructions that is arranged in a sequence to guide a computer
to find a solution for the given problem. The process of writing a program is called
programming.

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 CPU Architecture
ALU: It performs all kinds of calculations, such as arithmetic, comparison and other
operations.
Control Unit: It directs and coordinates the computer operations. It interprets the
instructions (program) and initiates action to execute them.
Register: It is a computer memory that provides quick access to the data currently being
used for processing. The ALU stores all temporary results and the final result in the
processor registers
Accumulator and general-purpose registers: These are frequently used to store the data
brought from the main memory and the intermediate results during program execution.
MAR stores the address of the data or instruction to be fetched from the main memory.
MBR stores the data or instruction fetched from the main memory 17

IR stores the instructions currently being executed. © OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS 2017. ALL RIGHTS
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CPU Architecture

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 Input Devices

An input device is used to feed data and instructions into the computer.

Some of the input devices that are widely used by computer users to feed data or
instruction to the computer are keyboard, mouse, trackball, joystick, stylus, touch screen,
barcode reader, optical character recognition (OCR) device, optical mark recognition
(OMR), MICR, web and digital cameras, etc.

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 Output Devices
Any device that outputs/gives information from a computer is called an output device.
Soft copy output devices are those O/P devices which produce an electronic version of an
output. Features of a soft copy O/P are:
• The output can be viewed only when the computer is switched On.
• The user can easily edit the soft copy output.
• Soft copy cannot be used by people who do not have a computer.
• Searching data in a soft copy is easy and fast.
• Electronic distribution of a soft copy is cheaper. It can be done easily and quickly.
Hard copy output devices are those O/P devices which produce a physical form of output.
Features of a hard copy • Computer is not needed to see the output.
• Editing and searching the hard copy is difficult.
• Hard copy output can be easily distributed to people who do not have a computer. 20

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• Distribution of a hard copy is not only costly but also slower. RESERVED.
Memory

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 Memory Hierarchy

Cache memory is an intermediate form of storage

between registers and the primary memory. It is
used to store instructions and data that are
repeatedly required to execute programs thereby
improving the overall system speed and increase
the performance of the computer. Keeping
frequently accessed data and instructions in the
cache avoids accessing the slower primary
memory.
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 Primary Memory - RAM
RAM is a volatile storage area within the computer typically used to store data temporarily so
that it can be accessed by the CPU. The information stored in RAM is loaded from the
computer’s hard disk, and includes data related to the operating system and applications that
are currently being executed by the processor. There are two types of RAM
Static RAM: This is a type of RAM holds data without an external refresh as long as it is
powered. SRAM is made of D flip-flops in which the memory cells flip-flop between 0 and 1
without the use of capacitors. Therefore, there is no need for an external refresh process to
be carried out. SRAM occupies more space and is more expensive than DRAM
Dynamic RAM: This is the most common type of memory used in personal computers,
workstations, and servers today. A DRAM chip contains millions of tiny memory cells. Each cell
is made up of a transistor and a capacitor, and can contain 1 bit of information—0 or 1. To
store a bit of information in a DRAM chip, a tiny amount of power is put into the cell to charge
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the capacitor. Hence, while reading a bit, the transistor checks for a charge in the capacitor. If
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 Primary Memory - ROM
ROM is non-volatile, that is, the data is retained in it even when the computer is turned
off.
Rewritable ROM chips include PROMs, EPROMs, and EEPROMs.
• Programmable read-only memory (PROM) also called one-time programmable ROM can
be written to or programmed using a special device called a PROM programmer. The
working of a PROM is similar to that of a CD-ROM recorder which enables the users to
write programs just once but the recorded data can be read multiple times.
Programming a PROM is also called burning.
• Erasable programmable read-only memory (EPROM) is a type of ROM that can be
erased and re-programmed. The EPROM can be erased by exposing the chip to strong
ultraviolet light typically for 10 minutes or longer and then rewritten with a process
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that again needs higher than usual voltage applied. RESERVED.
 Classification Of Computer Software

• Driver software
• Educational software
• Media players and media development software
• Productivity software
• Operating systems software
• Computer games
• Application software
• System software

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 Operating System
An operating system is a group of computer programs that controls the computer’s
resources such as CPU, memory, I/O devices, etc. and provides the users with an interface
that makes it easier to use. The primary goal of an operating system is to make the
computer system (or any other device in which it is installed, such as a cell phone)
convenient and efficient to use. It provides users an environment in which a user can
execute programs conveniently and efficiently. It is the most important software in a
computer system.

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 Translator
Compiler
A compiler is a special type of program that transforms the source code written in a
programming language (the source language) into machine language, which uses only
two digits—0 and 1 (the target language). The resultant code in 0s and 1s is known as the
object code. The object code is used to create an executable program.
If the source code contains errors, then the compiler will not be able to do its intended
task. Errors that limit the compiler in understanding a program are called syntax errors.
Each high-level language has a separate compiler. A compiler can translate a program in
one particular high-level language into machine language.

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 Translator
Interpreter
Interpreter translates the instructions into an intermediate form, which it then executes.
The interpreter takes one statement of high-level code, translates it into the machine level
code, executes it, and then takes the next statement and repeats the process until the
entire program is translated.

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 Translator
Assembler Since computers can execute only codes
written in machine language, a special program, called
the assembler, is required to convert the code written
in assembly language into an equivalent code in
machine language, which contains only 0s and 1s.
There is a one-to-one correspondence between the
assembly language code and the machine language
code. However, if there is an error, the assembler gives
a list of errors. The object file is created only when the
assembly language code is free from errors. The object
file can be executed as and when required. For 29

example, MASM, TASM, NASM, YASM, VASM, etc. © OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS 2017. ALL RIGHTS
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 Translator
Linker
Software development in the real world usually follows a modular
approach in which, a program is divided into various (smaller) modules
as it is easy to code, edit, debug, test, document, and maintain them.
Moreover, a module written for one program can also be used for
another program. When a module is compiled, an object file of that
module is generated.
Once the modules are coded and tested, the object files of all the
modules are combined together to form the final executable file. Linker,
also called a link editor or binder, is a program that combines the object
modules to form an executable program.
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Loader
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A loader is a special type of program that is part of an operating system
 Representation Of Data
Bit is a short form of binary digit. It is the smallest possible unit of data. In computerized data a bit can either be 0 or 1.
Nibble is a group of four binary digits.
Byte is a group of eight bits. A nibble is a half byte. Bits 0 through 3 are called the low order nibble, and bits 4 through 7
form the high order nibble
Word is group of two bytes is called a word. Bits 0 through 7 form the low order byte and bits 8 through 15 form the high
order byte.

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 Problem Solving Strategies
In requirements analysis, user’s expectations are gathered to know why
the software has to be built.

In the design phase, a plan of actions is made before the actual

development process can start.

In implementation phase, the designed algorithms are converted into

program code using any of the high-level languages.

During testing, all the modules are tested together to ensure that the
overall system works well as a whole product.

In software deployment, training, and support phase, the software is

installed or deployed in the production environment.

Maintenance and enhancements are ongoing activities that are done to

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cope with newly discovered problems or new requirements
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 Algorithms
An algorithm provides a blueprint to writing a program to solve a particular problem. It is
considered to be an effective procedure for solving a problem in a finite number of steps.
Algorithm should be:
• Be precise
• Be unambiguous
• Not even a single instruction must be repeated infinitely.
• After the algorithm gets terminated, the desired result must be obtained.

Different Approaches to Design an Algorithm

Top-down approach starts by dividing the complex algorithm into one or more modules.
Bottom-up approach is just the reverse of top-down approach. In the bottom-up design,
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we start with designing the most basic or concrete modules and©then proceed
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designing higher level modules.
 Control Structures Used in Algorithms
Sequence means that each step of the algorithm is executed in the specified order.
Decision statements are used when the outcome of the process depends on some
condition
Repetition, which involves executing one or more steps for a number of times, can be
implemented using constructs such as the while, do-while, and for loops.
Recursion is a technique of solving a problem by breaking it down into smaller and
smaller sub-problems until you get to a small enough problem that it can be easily
Examples:
solved. Usually, recursion involves a function calling itself until a specified condition is
met.

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 Flowcharts
A flowchart is a graphical or symbolic representation of a process. It is basically
used to design and document virtually complex processes to help the viewers to
visualize the logic of the process. Example: Draw a flowchart to calculate the sum of
the first 10 natural numbers.

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 Flowcharts
Example: Draw a flowchart to add two numbers. Example: Draw a flowchart to determine the
largest of three numbers.

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 Pseudocodes
Pseudocode is a compact and informal high-level description of an algorithm that uses
the structural conventions of a programming language. It facilitates designers to focus
on the logic of the algorithm without getting bogged down by the details of language
syntax. An ideal pseudocode must be complete, describing the entire logic of the
algorithm, so that it can be translated straightaway into a programming language.

Example: Write a pseudocode for calculating the price of a product after adding the sales tax
to its original price.

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 Types of Errors
Run-time errors occur when the program is being run executed. Such errors occur when
the program performs some illegal operations like dividing a number by zero, opening a
file that already exists, lack of free memory space, finding square or logarithm of
negative numbers. Run-time errors may terminate program execution.
Syntax Errors are generated when rules of a programming language are violated. Python
interprets (executes) each instruction in the program line by line. The moment
interpreter encounters a syntactic error, it stops further execution of the program.
Semantic or Logical Errors are those errors which may comply with rules of the
programming language but gives an unexpected and undesirable output which is
obviously not correct. For example, if you write a program to add two numbers but
instead of writing ‘+’ symbol, you put the ‘-’ symbol.
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Linker Errors These errors occur when the linker is not able to find the function definition
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 Testing

Unit Tests: Unit testing is applied only on a single unit or module to ensure whether it
exhibits the expected behavior.
Integration Tests: These tests are a logical extension of unit tests. In this test, two
units that have already been tested are combined into a component and the interface
between them is tested.
System Tests: System testing checks the entire system.

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 Debugging
Debugging is an activity that includes execution testing and code correction. It locates
errors in the program code and fix them to produce an error-free code. Different
approaches applied for debugging a code includes:
Brute-Force Method: A printout of CPU registers and relevant memory locations is
taken, studied, and documented. It is the least efficient way of debugging a program
and is generally done when all the other methods fail.
Backtracking Method: It is used to debug small applications. It works by locating the
first symptom of error and then tracing backward across the entire source code until
the real cause of error is detected. With increase in number of source code lines, the
possible backward paths become too large to manage.
Cause Elimination: A list of all possible causes of an error is developed. Then relevant
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tests are carried out to eliminate each of them. RESERVED.