Scribd
Upload
40 views11 pages

Slides Chapter 03

Uploaded by

akyadav123
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PPT, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
40 views11 pages

Slides Chapter 03

Uploaded by

akyadav123
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PPT, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
You are on page 1/ 11

Useful Algebraic Strucures

Groups:
A group is a pair <G, *>, where G is a Set & * is binary
operation such that following properties hold,
1.Closure: If a and b are elements of G, then so is a*b
2.Associativity: If a, b and c are elements of G, then
a*(b*c) = (a*b)*c
3. Identity element: There exist an element I in G such that for all b
in G,
I*b=I=b*I
4. Inverse: For each element b in G, there exists exactly one element
c in G, such that
b*c=c*b=I
Examples
• A group may be infinite such as –set of all
integers with regular addition
OR
• Finite such as: Zn = {0,1,2,…,n-1} with
modulo-n operation denoted by +n,
Example: “<Zn-{0}, *n> is a Group only if n is a
prime number”
• Here, *n denote “multiplication modulo n”
• Here, Closure & Associativity properties holds.
Identity element is 0.
But, does each element have inverse?
• If n is prime, then by corollary-1, for any b in
Zn we can find integers c & d such that,
b*c+n*d=1
So, n * d = 1 mod n,
Hence b-1 = c mod n
• If n is non-prime, let f be one of its non-zero
factors. Suppose f has an inverse say h.
So, f * h = 1 mod n or
f * h = 1 + k * n (for some integer k)
• Now, dividing throughout by n, we end up with
equating a fraction to an integer- a contradiction.
• Hence, some elements in Zn have no inverses.
So, <Zn-{0}, *n> is not a group if n is non-prime.
Hence, we conclude that “<Zn-{0}, *n> is a Group
only if n is a prime number”.
Notation:
• Let, Zn* denote {i | 0<i<n and gcd(i,n)=1}
i.e. Zn* is set of all integers modulo n that are
relatively prime to n.

Ex: Z5* = {1, 2, 3, 4} and Z6* = {1, 5}


• Order of a group <G, *>: is number of elements in G.
• Euler Totient Function: denoted by Φ(n) is the order of
<Zn*, *n>.
Hence, Φ(5) = 4, Φ(6) = 2
• Sub-group: <G’, *> is a sub-group of <G, *>, if it satisfies
all the listed properties & if G’ is subset of G.
• Ex: Consider Z5* = {1, 2, 3, 4}
The different sub-groups are
< {1},*5>, <{1,4}, *5> and < Z5* ,*5>

• Lagrange’s Theorem:
“The order of any sub-group of a group divides
the order of the parent group”
• It says that, there is a restriction on the number
of elements in sub-groups.
• Hence, in above example, we don’t have a sub-
group of order=3.
• Let <G’, *> be a finite group and let g be an element
of G.
• We use gi to denote the element obtained by
performing * operation on g i-times.
ie. g * g * g * g ….*g i-times
Hence, g
g2 = g * g
g3 = g * g * g
g4 = g * g * g * g
...
The list will start repeating at some point.
• Let S denote the set of all unique elements in above
list, then we note the following:
• <S, *> is a subgroup of <G, *> generated by g &
denoted it as <g>.
• Generator:
A group <G, *> is cyclic, if there is atleast
one element g in it such that <g> is <G, *>. We
refer to such an element as Generator of <G, *>.

Ex: Consider <Z*13, *13>. In this group,


21 mod 13 = 2 22 mod 13 = 4 23 mod 13 = 8
24 mod 13 = 3 25 mod 13 = 6 26 mod 13 = 12
27 mod 13 = 11 28 mod 13 = 9 29 mod 13 = 5
210 mod 13 = 10 211 mod 13 = 7 212 mod 13 = 1

Hence, 2 is a generator of <Z*13, *13>. But, 3 is not.


• FACT: The group <Z*p, *p> where p is prime, is cyclic.

• FACT: The number of generators in <Z*p, *p> is Φ(p-1).

• FACT:
Let p be prime and let p1,p2,……,pk be the distinct prime
factors of p-1.
Then, g is a generator of <Z*p, *p> if and only if
g(p-1)/pi ≠ 1 mod p for all pi, 1≤i≤k
Ex: Check whether 7 and 3 are generators of <Z*13, *13> ?
The distinct prime factors of 12 are 2 and 3.
So, p1 = 2 and p2 = 3
Let us check whether 7 is a generator <Z*13, *13>,
712/2 mod 13 = 76 mod 13 = -1
and 712/3 mod 13 = 74 mod 13 = 9
Hence, 7 passes the test and is a generator.

But, 312/2 mod 13 = 36 mod 13 = 1


Hence, 3 fails the test and is not a generator of <Z*13, *13>.
Rings

You might also like