EE 4006

Power and Electric Distribution

Systems Design Capsule
Lecture #16
04.11.2024

Instructor: Alper Savaşcı, PhD

Outline
• Operating States of a Power System
• Nodal & Loop Analysis
• Intro to The Power Flow
• Solving Algebraic Equations
• Direct Solutions To Linear Algebraic
Equations:
• Gauss Elimination
• Iterative Solutions To Linear Algebraic
Equations:
• Jacobi Method
• Gauss-Seidel Method
• Iterative Solutions To Nonlinear Algebraic
Equations:
• Newton-Raphson Method 2
State Diagram for Power System Operation

• The operating conditions of a

power system at a given point
in time can be determined if
the network model and
complex phasor voltages at
every system bus are known.

• Since the set of complex phasor voltages fully specifies the system, it is referred
to as the static state of the system.
• The system may move into one of three possible states, namely normal,
emergency and restorative, as the operating conditions change.
• The state diagram in figure illustrates the possible transitions between the
different operating states defined above.

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Normal State
• A power system is said to
operate in a normal state if all
the loads in the system can be
supplied power by the existing
generators without violating
any operational constraints.
• Operational constraints include
the limits on the transmission
line flows, as well as the upper
and lower limits on bus voltage
magnitudes.
• A normal state is said to be secure if the system can remain in a normal state
following the occurrence of each contingency from a list of critical contingencies.
• Common contingencies of interest are transmission line or generator outages due
to unexpected failures of equipment or natural causes such as storms.
• Otherwise, the normal state is classified as insecure where the power balance at
each bus and all operating inequality constraints are still satisfied, yet the system
remains vulnerable with respect to some of the considered contingencies.
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Emergency State

• Operating conditions may change significantly due to an unexpected event which

may cause the violation of some of the operating constraints, while the power
system continues to supply power to all the loads in the system.
• In such a situation the system is said to be operating in an emergency state.
• Emergency state requires immediate corrective action to be taken by the operator
so as to bring the system back to a normal state.
• While the system is in the emergency state, corrective control measures may be
able to avoid system collapse at the expense of disconnecting various loads, lines,
transformers or other equipment. 5
Emergency State

• As a result, the operating limit violations may be eliminated, and the system may
recover stability with reduced load and reconfigured topology.
• Then, the load versus generation balance may have to be restored in order to start
supplying power to all the loads.
• Such an operating state is called the restorative state, and the actions to be taken
in order to transform it into a normal state are referred to as restorative controls.

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A Typical View of The Control Room

• Power systems are operated by system operators from the area control
centers.
• The main goal of the system operator is to maintain the system in the normal
secure state as the operating conditions vary during the daily operation.
• Accomplishing this goal requires continuous monitoring of the system
conditions, identification of the operating state and determination of the
necessary preventive actions in case the system state is found to be insecure. 7
 Milli Yük Tevzi Merkezi |
• TEİAŞ
Milli Yük Tevzi Merkezi ve 9 adet Bölgesel Yük Tevzi Merkezi ile ülkemizin elektrik
iletim sistemini 7/24 kontrol ve takip ediyor.
• Milli Yük Tevzi Merkezi, ulusal enerji üretim ve iletim sisteminin güvenliğini ve arz
kalitesini koruyarak gerçek zamanlı üretim-tüketim dengesinin sağlanmasında ve
şebekenin ana omurgasını oluşturan 400 kV iletim sisteminin işletilmesi ile
dengeleme güç piyasası ve gerçek zamanlı yan hizmetler piyasasının işletilmesinde
en önemli işlevi görmektedir.
• Bölgesel Yük Tevzi Merkezleri ise esas olarak 154 kV iletim sisteminin işletilmesi,
manevra, veri toplama ve değerlendirme faaliyetlerini yürütmektedir.
• Yük tevzi işletmeciliği kapsamında
• elektrik enerjisi arz ve talebinin gerçek zamanlı dengelenmesini sağlanmakta,
• dengeleme Güç Piyasasını ve Yan Hizmetler Piyasası işletilmekte,
• işletme planlaması gerçekleştirmekte,
• uluslararası enterkonneksiyon hatları işletilmekte,
• arıza durumları ve planlı çalışma manevraları yürütülmekte,
• kısa dönem enerji planlaması yapılmakta,
• günlük işletme programları ve yük frekans kontrolü yapılmakta,
• sistem güvenliğini tesis etmek amacıyla N-1 analizleri yapılmaktadır.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v_faEdPMh68 8
A Day in the Life of Dispatch

9
 Intro to The Power Flow
Successful power system operation
under normal balanced three-phase
steady-state conditions requires the
following:
• Generation supplies the demand
(load) plus losses.
• Bus voltage magnitudes remain
close to rated values.
• Generators operate within
specified real and reactive power
limits.
• Transmission lines and
transformers are not overloaded.

The power flow (sometimes also called the load flow) is the basic
tool for investigating these requirements.

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• The power flow determines the
voltage magnitude and angle at
each bus in a power system under
balanced three-phase steady-state
conditions.
• It also computes real and reactive
power flows for all equipment
interconnecting the buses, as well
as equipment losses.
• Conventional nodal or loop
analysis is not suitable for power
flow studies because the input
data for loads are normally given
in terms of power, not impedance. The power flow problem is therefore
• Also, generators are considered to formulated as a set of nonlinear algebraic
equations suitable for computer solution.
be power sources, not voltage or
current sources.

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Nodal and Mesh Analysis
• There are two methods usually employed in analyzing AC circuits, i.e.,
• Nodal Analysis (Node voltage method) and
• Mesh Analysis (Loop current method)
• Both methods require the solution of simultaneous equations.
• Nodal Analysis is often used in power flow analysis to find bus voltages in power
systems with multiple interconnected nodes (buses).
Procedure:
• Identify all nodes in the circuit and choose a reference node (ground).
• Write KCL equations for each node (except the reference).
• Express each current in terms of the node voltages.
• Solve the resulting set of linear equations to find the unknown node voltages.
Advantages:
• Best suited for circuits with multiple parallel elements.
• Reduces the number of equations when there are many components
connected to the same node.

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• Loop analysis, also known as the mesh current method, is used to determine
the current in each closed loop or mesh of a circuit.
Procedure:
• Identify all the loops in the circuit.
• Define a mesh current for each loop.
• Write KVL equations for each loop in terms of mesh currents and the
resistances.
• Solve the resulting set of linear equations to determine the unknown mesh
currents.
Advantages:
• Best for circuits with multiple series-connected elements.
• Reduces the number of equations when dealing with circuits that have
fewer loops than nodes.
• Often used in fault analysis, particularly in short-circuit analysis, where it helps
identify fault currents in various branches of the system.

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Obtaning Nodal Equations

Nodal equations according to

the Kirchoff’s current law as

denote the node voltages

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Nodal equations according to the Kirchoff’s current
law as

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 YV = I

Vector of Vector of
Currents Node
16
Voltages
Direct Solutions To Linear Algebraic
Equations: Gauss Elimination
• Consider the following set of linear algebraic equations in matrix format:

OR

, are N vectors
The elements of A, x and y can be real or complex.
is an N X N square matrix.

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 • Given A and y, the objective is to solve for x.
• The solution x can be obtained easily when A is an upper triangular matrix
with nonzero diagonal elements.

⋮
In general, with already computed, the kth
equation can be solved as

This procedure of solution is called back substitution.

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• If A is not an upper triangular. it can be transformed to an equivalent equation
with an upper triangular matrix step-by-step.
• The transformation, called Gauss elimination.

Step #1: Equation-1 is multiplied by and then subtracted from Equation-n, for .

After completing Step #1:

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Step #2: Use the second equation resulting in Step 1 to eliminate from the
remaining (third, fourth, fifth, and so on) equations.

After completing Step #2:

The procedure is carried on till is eliminated.

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 Multiply the equation n by and then subtract from

Since for this example, there is Gauss elimination step.

1. Multiply the equation by and then subtract from equation

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After steps, the equivalent equation is triangular as follows

Step #1:
Upper triangular form

Using back substituion

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There are Gauss elimination steps.

Step #1 :

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Step #2 :

Triangularized matrix.

The solution x now can be easily obtained via back substitution.

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Initial Condition:

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27
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 Computational Efficiency
• Computer storage requirements for Gauss elimination and back
substitution include
for matrix A is memory locations
for vector y is N locations
• Computer time requirements can be evaluated by determining
the number of arithmetic operations required for Gauss
elimination and back substitution.
• Gauss elimination requires
multiplications, divisions, and subtractions.
• Also, back substitution requires
multiplications, divisions, and subtractions.

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• If we consider a digital computer with a
• multiplication time of s and
• addition or subtraction time s .
• Solving equations would require

• approximately plus some additional bookkeeping time for indexing and

managing loops.
• Since the power flow problem often involves solving power systems
with tens of thousands of equations. The solution time may not be fast
for large-scale systems.

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Iterative Solutions To Linear Algebraic
Equations: Jacobi And Gauss-seidel
• A general iterative solution to

OR

• First select an initial guess x(0). Then use

: th guess
: is an N vector of functions that specify the iteration method.

• Continue this procedure until the following stopping condition is satisfied, as

is the kth component of x(i) : Tolerans level 32

 Start
• The following questions are pertinent:
i←0 1. Will the iteration procedure
converge to the unique solution?
x(i) ← Set initial guess 2. What is the convergence rate
for the unknowns (how many iterations are
required)?
x(i+1) ← g[ x(i) ] 3. When using a digital computer,
what are the computer storage
and time requirements?
i ← i +1
• These questions are addressed for two
ε specific iteration methods:
N
• Jacobi
• Gauss- Seidel.
Y
Stop

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Jacobi Method
• The Jacobi method is obtained by considering the equation of

Solving for :

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iterable equation with iteration index i

[ ][ ]
𝑥 1 (𝑖+1) 𝑥1 ( 𝑖 )
𝑥 2 (𝑖+1) 𝑥2 ( 𝑖 )
⋮ =𝐠 ⋮
𝑥𝑘 (𝑖+ 1) 𝑥𝑘( 𝑖 )
⋮ ⋮
𝑥 𝑁 (𝑖 +1) 𝑥 𝑁 (𝑖)
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where

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Solve Example 6.1 using the Jacobi method. Start with and continue until the
termination criteria is satisfied for .

There are two options to obtain itarable set of equations

(1)

(2)

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(1)

1 1
𝑘=1 , 𝑥1 ( 𝑖+1 ) =
𝐴 11
[ 𝑦 1 − 𝐴 12 𝑥 2( 𝑖) ] =
10
[ 6 − 5 𝑥2 (𝑖) ]

1 1
𝑘= 2 , 𝑥 2 ( 𝑖+1 ) =
𝐴 22
[ 𝑦 2 − 𝐴 21 𝑥1 (𝑖) ] = [ 3 − 2 𝑥 1 (𝑖) ]
9

38
39
(2)

[ ]
1
0
𝐃=
[ 𝐴1 1
0
0
𝐴 22 ] [
=
10
0
0
9 ] [0 ]
𝐃− 𝟏 = 1 0 0
9
=
10
0
1
9

[ ] ]) [ ]
1 5
0 0 −
𝐌= 10
0
1 ([ 10
0
0
9][
−
10
2
5
9
=
−
2
10
0
9 9

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(2)

[ ] [ ]
5 1
0 − 0
[ ]
𝑥1 ( 𝑖+1 ) =
𝑥2 ( 𝑖+1 ) −
2
9
10
0
[ ]
𝑥 1 (𝑖) +
𝑥 2 (𝑖)
10
0
1
9
[]
6
3

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42
43
Gauss-Seidel Method
• The G-S method is given by

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(1)

1 1
𝑘=1 , 𝑥1 ( 𝑖+1 ) =
𝐴 11
[ 𝑦 1 − 𝐴 12 𝑥 2( 𝑖) ] =
10
[ 6 − 5 𝑥2 (𝑖) ]

1 1
𝑘= 2 , 𝑥 2 ( 𝑖+1 ) =
𝐴 22
[ 𝑦 2 − 𝐴 21 𝑥1 ( 𝑖+1 ) ] = [ 6 − 2 𝑥1 (𝑖+1) ]
9

45
46
(2)

[ ] [ ]
1 1
0 − 0
[ ]
𝑥1 ( 𝑖+1 ) =
𝑥2 ( 𝑖+1 ) 0
1
9
2
[ ]
𝑥 1( 𝑖) + 10
𝑥 2 (𝑖) −
2
90
1
9
[]
6
3

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Jacobi vs Gauss-Seidel
Jacobi Method Gauss-Seidel Method

For this example, Gauss–Seidel converges in 6 iterations,

compared to 10 iterations with Jacobi.

• The convergence rate is faster with Gauss–Seidel for some A matrices, but
faster with Jacobi for other A matrices.
• In some cases, one method diverges while the other converges.
• In other cases both methods diverge, as illustrated by the next example.
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The unique solution by matrix inversion is

As shown, Gauss–Seidel does not converge to the unique solution; instead it

diverges. We could show that Jacobi also diverges for this example.
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Jacobi does not converge to the Gauss-Seidel does not converge
unique solution to the unique solution

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Some Drawbacks

• When is zero, we cannot use these methods.

• Also, if any one diagonal element has too small magnitude, these methods will diverge.

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