ELECTRONICS

ELEMENTS
 Electronics – Controlling the Flow
of Current
• To make an electronic device (like a motor
for sewing machine or a electrical weaving
machine ) do something useful we need to
control and manipulate the flow of current.
• There are a number of different electronic
components that we use to do this.
 The Resistor
• The function of the • Circuit Symbol
resistor is to restrict
(limit) the flow of
current through it.
• Electrical energy is
converted to heat.

• Measured in Ohms
Resistors

• Fixed resistors are the most

common.
• Adjustable resistors can be
tapped at various resistances.
• Potentiometers are used for
audio volume controls.

• Rated in watts they can safely

pass.
Various Resistors
Gif ref . Instrumentation .com
 The Capacitor
• The function of the • Circuit Symbol
capacitor is to
temporarily store
electric current.
– Like a very temporary
storage battery.
– Stores energy in an
electrostatic field.
– Blocks DC, Passes AC • Measured in Farads
Capacitor Types

• Fixed

• Non-Polarized

• Electrolytic

• Variable
 The Inductor
• The function of the
inductor is to • Circuit Symbol
temporarily store
electric current.
– Is basically a coil of
wire.
– Stores energy in a
magnetic field.
– Resists changes in
current. • Measured in Henrys
Inductors
Reactance

• Electrical current interacts with both capacitors and inductors. This

interaction is called reactance, and varies with frequency.
• Capacitors store energy in an electrostatic field. Capacitors oppose
changes in voltage.
• Inductors store energy in a magnetic field. Inductors oppose changes
in current.
• Reactance is measured in ohms.
 Resonance
• Because capacitors and inductors store
energy in different ways, the stored energy
can actually cancel each other under the
right conditions (at a particular frequency).
– Capacitors – electric field
– Inductors – magnetic field
• Cancelled current = no reactance, just
leaving resistance.
 Resonant Antenna
• If an antenna is designed correctly, the
capacitive reactance cancels the inductive
reactance.
• Theoretically, the resulting reactance is
zero.
– Leaving only resistance – meaning minimum
impediment to the radio frequency currents flowing in
the antenna and sending the radio wave into space.
 Antennas are Part Capacitor – Part
Inductor – Part Resistor
• Antennas actually have characteristics of
capacitor, inductor and resistor electronic
components.
• Capacitors and inductors, because they
store energy in fields, react differently to ac
than dc.
– Special kind of resistance to the flow of ac –
called reactance.
The Diode

• Diodes permit electrical flow in

only one direction.
• Anode is positive
• Cathode is negative
• Cathode end usually has a stripe for
identification.
Diode Types

• LED’s emit light

when voltage is
applied. (Light Emitting
Diode)
• Rectifiers convert AC
to pulsing DC.
• Zener and Schottky are special
purpose diodes.
Rectification
 The Transistor
• The function of the • Circuit Symbol
transistor is to variably (Bipolar Transistors)
control the flow of
current.
– Much like an
electronically
controlled valve.
– An analogy, the faucet
in your sink.

NPN PNP
 The Transistor
• Bipolar transistors are • Circuit Symbol
constructed with three (Bipolar Transistors)
alternating layers of
semiconductor material.
• The connections are the
emitter, the collector and
the base.
• How much signal
amplification is present is
the gain of the device.

NPN PNP
Transistor Types
 The Integrated Circuit
• The integrated circuit • Circuit Symbol
is a collection of
components contained
in one device that
accomplishes a
specific task .
• Transistors, diodes,
capacitors, inductors,
resistors.
– Acts like a “black-
box”
Protective Components – Intentional
Open Circuits
• Fuses and circuit • Circuit Symbols
breakers are designed
to interrupt the flow of
current if the current
becomes uncontrolled.
– Fuses blow – one time
protection.
– Circuit breakers trip –
can be reset and reused.
 Protective Components
• Never replace a fuse or • Circuit Symbols
circuit breaker with
another that has a
higher amperage rating.
You could damage the
equipment or cause a
fire.
• Use the same amperage
and voltage rating.
Control Devices

• Switches
• On / Off
• Poles
• Single
• Double
• Throw
• Relays – electrically controlled
switches
Putting It All Together in a Circuit
Diagram
Basic Logic Gates
NOT Gate -- Inverter

NOT X Y
X Y 0 1
1 0
Y = ~X
NOT

• Y = ~X (Verilog)
• Y = !X (ABEL)
• Y = not X (VHDL)
• Y = X’
•Y = X
•Y = X (textook)
• not(Y,X) (Verilog)
NOT

X ~X ~~X = X

X ~X ~~X
0 1 0
1 0 1
AND Gate

AND
X Y Z
X 0 0 0
0 1 0
Z
1 0 0
Y 1 1 1

Z = X & Y
AND

•X & Y (Verilog and ABEL)

• X and Y (VHDL)
•X Y
•X VY
•X * Y
U
• XY (textbook)
• and(Z,X,Y) (Verilog)
OR Gate

OR
X Y Z
X 0 0 0
Z 0 1 1
Y 1 0 1
1 1 1
Z = X | Y
OR

•X | Y (Verilog)
•X # Y (ABEL)
•X or Y (VHDL)
•X + Y (textbook)
•X V Y
•X U Y
• or(Z,X,Y) (Verilog)
Basic Logic Gates
and Basic Digital Design
• NOT, AND, and OR Gates
• NAND and NOR Gates
• DeMorgan’s Theorem
• Exclusive-OR (XOR) Gate
• Multiple-input Gates
NAND Gate

NAND
X Y Z
X 0 0 1
0 1 1
Z
1 0 1
Y 1 1 0

Z = ~(X & Y)
nand(Z,X,Y)
NAND Gate

NOT-AND
X Y W Z
X 0 0 0 1
W 0 1 0 1
Z
1 0 0 1
Y 1 1 1 0

W = X & Y

Z = ~W = ~(X & Y)
NOR Gate
NOR
X Y Z
X 0 0 1
Z 0 1 0
Y 1 0 0
1 1 0
Z = ~(X | Y)
nor(Z,X,Y)
NOR Gate

NOT-OR
X Y W Z
X 0 0 0 1
W
Z 0 1 1 0
Y 1 0 1 0
1 1 1 0
W = X | Y

Z = ~W = ~(X | Y)
Basic Logic Gates
and Basic Digital Design
• NOT, AND, and OR Gates
• NAND and NOR Gates
• Exclusive-OR (XOR) Gate
• Multiple-input Gates
NAND Gate

X Z X Z
=
Y Y

Z = ~(X & Y) Z = ~X | ~Y

X Y W Z X Y ~X ~Y Z
0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1
0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1
1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0
Analog to Digital
Converters
Analog Signals

Analog signals – directly measurable quantities in terms of some other

quantity
Examples:
• Thermometer – mercury height rises as temperature rises
• Car Speedometer – Needle moves farther right as you accelerate
• Stereo – Volume increases as you turn the knob.
Digital Signals

Digital Signals – have only two states. For digital computers, we refer
to binary states, 0 and 1. “1” can be on, “0” can be off.
Examples:
• Light switch can be either on or off
• Door to a room is either open or closed
Examples of A/D Applications

• Microphones - take your voice varying pressure waves in the air and
convert them into varying electrical signals
• Strain Gages - determines the amount of strain (change in dimensions)
when a stress is applied
• Thermocouple – temperature measuring device converts thermal
energy to electric energy
• Voltmeters
• Digital Multimeters
Just what does an
A/D converter DO?

• Converts analog signals into binary words

Analog  Digital Conversion
2-Step Process:

• Quantizing - breaking down analog value is a set of finite states

• Encoding - assigning a digital word or number to each state and
matching it to the input signal
Step 1: Quantizing

Output Discrete Voltage

Example: States Ranges (V)
You have 0-10V signals. 0 0.00-1.25
Separate them into a set of
discrete states with 1.25V 1 1.25-2.50
increments. (How did we 2 2.50-3.75
get 1.25V? See next
3 3.75-5.00
slide…)
4 5.00-6.25
5 6.25-7.50
6 7.50-8.75
7 8.75-10.0
 Quantizing

The number of possible states that the converter

can output is:
N=2n
where n is the number of bits in the AD converter

Example: For a 3 bit A/D converter, N=23=8.

Analog quantization size:

Q=(Vmax-Vmin)/N = (10V – 0V)/8 = 1.25V
Encoding

Output Output Binary Equivalent

• Here we assign the
States
digital value (binary
0 000
number) to each state
for the computer to 1 001
read. 2 010
3 011
4 100
5 101
6 110
7 111
Accuracy of A/D Conversion

There are two ways to best improve accuracy of A/D

conversion:

• increasing the resolution which improves the

accuracy in measuring the amplitude of the analog
signal.

• increasing the sampling rate which increases the

maximum frequency that can be measured.
Resolution

• Resolution (number of discrete values the converter can produce) =

Analog Quantization size (Q)
(Q) = Vrange / 2^n, where Vrange is the range of analog voltages which
can be represented

• limited by signal-to-noise ratio (should be around 6dB)

• In our previous example: Q = 1.25V, this is a high resolution. A lower

resolution would be if we used a 2-bit converter, then the resolution
would be 10/2^2 = 2.50V.
Sampling Rate

Frequency at which ADC evaluates analog signal. As we see in

the second picture, evaluating the signal more often more
accurately depicts the ADC signal.
 Aliasing

• Occurs when the input signal is changing much faster

than the sample rate.

For example, a 2 kHz sine wave being sampled at 1.5

kHz would be reconstructed as a 500 Hz (the aliased
signal) sine wave.

Nyquist Rule:
• Use a sampling frequency at least twice as high as the
maximum frequency in the signal to avoid aliasing.
Overall Better Accuracy

• Increasing both the sampling rate and the resolution you

can obtain better accuracy in your AD signals.
A/D Converter Types

• Converters

• Flash ADC
• Delta-Sigma ADC
• Dual Slope (integrating) ADC
• Successive Approximation ADC
Digital to analog
converters
What is a DAC?

• A digital to analog converter (DAC) converts a digital

signal to an analog voltage or current output.

100101… DAC
What is a DAC?
Analog Output Signal

0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 0110 01111000 10011010 1011
Digital Input Signal
Types of DACs

• Many types of DACs available.

• Usually switches, resistors, and op-amps used to implement
conversion
• Two Types:
• Binary Weighted Resistor
• R-2R Ladder
Binary Weighted Resistor

• Utilizes a summing op-amp circuit

• Weighted resistors are used to distinguish each bit from the most
significant to the least significant
• Transistors are used to switch between Vref and ground (bit high or
low)
 Binary Weighted Resistor

• Assume Ideal Op-amp

Vref
• No current into op-amp
• Virtual ground at inverting R
input 2R I Rf
• Vout= -IRf 4R
- Vout
+
2nR
 Binary Weighted Resistor

Voltages V1 through Vn are either Vref

Vref
if corresponding bit is high or ground
V1 R
if corresponding bit is low
V2 2R I Rf
V1 is most significant bit
V3 4R
Vn is least significant bit - Vout
+
Vn 2n-1R
MSB

 V1 V2 V3 Vn  LSB
Vout  IRf  Rf      n -1 
 R 2R 4R 2 R
Binary Weighted Resistor

If Rf=R/2
 V1 V2 V3 Vn 
Vout  IRf       n 
2 4 8 2 
For example, a 4-Bit converter yields
 1 1 1 1
Vout  Vref  b3  b2  b1  b0 
 2 4 8 16 
Where b3 corresponds to Bit-3, b2 to Bit-2, etc.
Binary Weighted Resistor

• Advantages
• Simple Construction/Analysis
• Fast Conversion
• Disadvantages
• Requires large range of resistors (2000:1 for 12-bit
DAC) with necessary high precision for low resistors
• Requires low switch resistances in transistors
• Can be expensive. Therefore, usually limited to 8-bit
resolution.
R-2R Ladder

Each bit corresponds

Vref to a switch:

If the bit is high,

the corresponding
switch is connected to
the inverting input of
the op-amp.
Bit: 0 0 0 0 Vout
4-Bit Converter If the bit is low, the
corresponding switch
is connected to ground.
R-2R Ladder

V3
Vref V1 V2 V3
Ideal Op-amp
2R 2R

Req 
2 R 2 R  R
2 R  2 R 
R-2R Ladder

Vref V1 V2 V3 V2 V3
R R
 R  1
V3  V2  V2
 RR 2
I
Likewise,
1
V2  V1
Vout 2
1
V1  Vref
2
Vout  IR
R-2R Ladder

Results:
Vref V1 V2 V3 1 1 1
V3  Vref , V2  Vref , V1  Vref
8 4 2

 Vref Vref Vref Vref 

Vout  R b3  b2  b1  b0 
 2R 4R 8R 16 R 

Where b3 corresponds to bit 3,

b2 to bit 2, etc.
Vout
If bit n is set, bn=1

If bit n is clear, bn=0

R-2R Ladder

For a 4-Bit R-2R Ladder

 1 1 1 1
Vout  Vref  b3  b2  b1  b0 
 2 4 8 16 
For general n-Bit R-2R Ladder or Binary Weighted Resister DAC

n
1
Vout  Vref  bn  i i
i 1 2
R-2R Ladder

• Advantages
• Only two resistor values (R and 2R)
• Does not require high precision resistors
• Disadvantage
• Lower conversion speed than binary weighted DAC
Specifications of DACs

• Resolution
• Speed
• Linearity
• Settling Time
• Reference Voltages
• Errors
Questions please
Practice questions--
What is the ability to store energy in an electric
field called?

• A. Inductance
• B. Resistance
• C. Tolerance
• D. Capacitance
What is the basic unit of capacitance?

• A. The farad
• B. The ohm
• C. The volt
• D. The henry
What is the ability to store energy in a
magnetic field called?

• A. Admittance
• B. Capacitance
• C. Resistance
• D. Inductance
What is the basic unit of inductance? (T5C04)

• A. The coulomb
• B. The farad
• C. The henry
• D. The ohm
What electrical component is used to oppose
the flow of current in a DC circuit? (T6A01)

• A. Inductor
• B. Resistor
• C. Voltmeter
• D. Transformer
What type of component is often used as an
adjustable volume control?

• A. Fixed resistor
• B. Power resistor
• C. Potentiometer
• D. Transformer
What electrical parameter is controlled by a
potentiometer?

• A. Inductance
• B. Resistance
• C. Capacitance
• D. Field strength
What electrical component stores energy
in an electric field?

• A. Resistor
• B. Capacitor
• C. Inductor
• D. Diode
What type of electrical component consists of
two or more conductive surfaces separated by
an insulator?

• A. Resistor
• B. Potentiometer
• C. Oscillator
• D. Capacitor
What type of electrical component stores
energy in a magnetic field?

• A. Resistor
• B. Capacitor
• C. Inductor
• D. Diode
What electrical component is usually
composed of a coil of wire?

• A. Switch
• B. Capacitor
• C. Diode
• D. Inductor
What electrical component is usually
composed of a coil of wire?

• A. Switch
• B. Capacitor
• C. Diode
• D. Inductor
What electrical component is used to connect
or disconnect electrical circuits?

• A. Zener diode
• B. Switch
• C. Inductor
• D. Variable resistor
What electrical component is used to protect
other circuit components from current
overloads?

• A. Fuse
• B. Capacitor
• C. Shield
• D. Inductor
What class of electronic components is
capable of using a voltage or current signal to
control current flow? (T6B01)

• A. Capacitors
• B. Inductors
• C. Resistors
• D. Transistors
What electronic component allows current to
flow in only one direction? (T6B02)

• A. Resistor
• B. Fuse
• C. Diode
• D. Driven element
Which of these components can be used as an
electronic switch or amplifier? (T6B03)

• A. Oscillator
• B. Potentiometer
• C. Transistor
• D. Voltmeter
Which of these components is made of three
layers of semiconductor material? (T6B04)

• A. Alternator
• B. Bipolar junction transistor
• C. Triode
• D. Pentagrid converter
Which of the following electronic components
can amplify signals? (T6B05)

• A. Transistor
• B. Variable resistor
• C. Electrolytic capacitor
• D. Multi-cell battery
How is a semiconductor diode’s cathode lead
usually identified? (T6B06)

• A. With the word “cathode”

• B. With a stripe
• C. With the letter “C”
• D. All of these choices are correct
What does the abbreviation “LED” stand for?
(T6B07)

• A. Low Emission Diode

• B. Light Emitting Diode
• C. Liquid Emission Detector
• D. Long Echo Delay
What does the abbreviation “FET” stand for?
(T6B08)

• A. Field Effect Transistor

• B. Fast Electron Transistor
• C. Free Electron Transition
• D. Field Emission Thickness
What are the names of the two electrodes of a
diode? (T6B09)

• A. Plus and minus

• B. Source and drain
• C. Anode and cathode
• D. Gate and base
Which semiconductor component has an
emitter electrode? (T6B10)

• A. Bipolar transistor
• B. Field effect transistor
• C. Silicon diode
• D. Bridge rectifier
Which semiconductor component has a gate
electrode? (T6B11)

• A. Bipolar transistor
• B. Field effect transistor
• C. Silicon diode
• D. Bridge rectifier
What is the term that describes a transistor’s
ability to amplify a signal? (T6B12)

• A. Gain
• B. Forward resistance
• C. Forward voltage drop
• D. On resistance
What is the name for standardized
representations of components in an electrical
wiring diagram? (T6C01)

• A. Electrical depictions
• B. Grey sketch
• C. Schematic symbols
• D. Component callouts
Which of the following is accurately
represented in electrical circuit schematic
diagrams? (T6C13)

• A. Wire lengths
• B. Physical appearance of components
• C. The way components are interconnected
• D. All of these choices are correct
Which of the following devices or circuits
changes an alternating current into a varying
direct current signal? (T6D01)

• A. Transformer
• B. Rectifier
• C. Amplifier
• D. Reflector
Which of the following devices or circuits
changes an alternating current into a varying
direct current signal? (T6D01)

• A. Transformer
• B. Rectifier
• C. Amplifier
• D. Reflector
Which best describes a relay? (T6D02)

• A. A switch controlled by an electromagnet

• B. A current controlled amplifier
• C. An optical sensor
• D. A pass transistor
Which best describes a relay? (T6D02)

• A. A switch controlled by an electromagnet

• B. A current controlled amplifier
• C. An optical sensor
• D. A pass transistor
Which of the following can be used to display
signal strength on a numeric scale? (T6D04)

• A. Potentiometer
• B. Transistor
• C. Meter
• D. Relay
Which of the following can be used to display
signal strength on a numeric scale?

• A. Potentiometer
• B. Transistor
• C. Meter
• D. Relay
What component is commonly used to change
120V AC house current to a lower AC voltage
for other uses? (T6D06)

• A. Variable capacitor
• B. Transformer
• C. Transistor
• D. Diode
What component is commonly used to change
120V AC house current to a lower AC voltage
for other uses?

• A. Variable capacitor
• B. Transformer
• C. Transistor
• D. Diode
Which of the following is commonly used as a
visual indicator?

• A. LED
• B. FET
• C. Zener diode
• D. Bipolar transistor
Which of the following is used together with an
inductor to make a tuned circuit?

• A. Resistor
• B. Zener diode
• C. Potentiometer
• D. Capacitor
What is the name of the device that combines
several semiconductors and other components
into one package?

• A. Transducer
• B. Multi-pole relay
• C. Integrated circuit
• D. Transformer
What is the name of the device that combines
several semiconductors and other components
into one package? (T6D09)

• A. Transducer
• B. Multi-pole relay
• C. Integrated circuit
• D. Transformer
What is the purpose of a fuse in an electrical
circuit? (T0A04)

• A. To prevent power supply ripple from damaging a circuit

• B. To interrupt power in case of overload
• C. To limit current to prevent shocks
• D. All of these choices are correct
What is the purpose of a fuse in an electrical
circuit?

• A. To prevent power supply ripple from damaging a circuit

• B. To interrupt power in case of overload
• C. To limit current to prevent shocks
• D. All of these choices are correct
Why is it unwise to install a 20-ampere fuse in
the place of a 5 ampere fuse?

• A. The larger fuse would be likely to blow because it is rated

for higher current
• B. The power supply ripple would greatly increase
• C. Excessive current could cause a fire
• D. All of these choices are correct