UNIT IV

Computer
Networking
& Computer
Security
Computer Networking
A computer network is a set of
nodes connected by media (cable
media or wireless media) such that
nodes are capable of sending or
receiving of information. This node
can be computer ,printer or any
other networking devices.

2
Purpose or Goal
Information Exchange
Resource sharing
Reliability
Reduce cost
Load Sharing
Communication

3
Topologies
Network Topology is the schematic
description of a network
arrangement, connecting various
nodes(sender and receiver)
through lines of connection.
Bus Topology
Ring Topology
Star Topology
Mesh topology

4
Bus Topology
Bus topology is a network type in
which every computer and network
device is connected to single
cable.

5
Advantages
It is cost effective.
Cable required is least compared
to other network topology.
Used in small networks.
It is easy to understand.
Easy to expand joining two
cables together.

6
Disadvantages
Cables fails then whole network
fails.
If network traffic is heavy or
nodes are more the performance
of the network decreases.
Cable has a limited length.
It is slower than the ring
topology.

7
Ring Topology
All nodes of the network are
connected in form of ring. The
single messages called “Token” is
passed through all nodes in one
direction. The token is accepted by
node which has same address and
attached in the token.

8
Advantages
This topology is easy to install
and economical.
It is easy to adjust new node.
Disadvantages
Failure of one node or cable
results in failure of entire
network.
This topology is suitable for
farming small network.

9
Star Topology
In this topology nodes are
connected trough a centralize
device called Hub or switch. The
nodes on the network communicate
by passing the message through
this centralized device.

10
Advantages
Failure of one node does not
result in failure of entire network.
This topology is easy to install,
configure and modify the network.
Extra nodes can be added or
removed from the network without
disturbing to the rest of network.
Very useful in creation of large
network.

11
Disadvantage
Failure of central switch or Hub
result failure of entire network.
It is more costly than ring and
bus topology because of
Hub/Switch and extra cables.

12
A mesh topology
A mesh topology is a network
topology in which all the network
nodes are individually connected
to most of the other nodes. There
is not a concept of a central
switch, hub or computer which
acts as a central point of
communication to pass on the
messages.

13
Diagram

14
Advantages
Each connection can carry its
own data load
It is robust
A fault is diagnosed easily
Provides security and privacy

15
Disadvantages

Installation and configuration are

difficult if the connectivity gets
more
Cabling cost is more and the
most in case of a fully connected
mesh topology
Bulk wiring is required

16
Introduction OSI
 The Open System Interconnection
Reference Model (OSI Reference Model
or OSI Model) is an abstract description for
layered communications and computer
network protocol design.
 It divides network architecture into seven
layers which, from top to bottom, are the
Application, Presentation, Session, Transport,
Network, Data Link, and Physical Layers. It is
therefore often referred to as the OSI Seven
Layer Model.

17
OSI History
 In 1978, the International Standers
Organization (ISO) began to develop its OSI
framework architecture.

 OSIhas two major components: an abstract

model of networking, called the Basic
Reference Model or seven-layer model, and
a set of specific protocols.

18
OSI History
 The concept of a 7 layer model was provided
by the work of Charles Bachman, then of
Honeywell.

 Various aspects of OSI design evolved from

experiences with the Advanced Research
Projects Agency Network (ARPANET) and the
fledgling Internet.

19
 OSI Layers
OSI Model
Data
Layer Function
unit
Network process to
7. Application
application
Data Data representation,
Host 6. Presentation
encryption and decryption
layers
5. Session Interhost communication
Segme End-to-end connections
4. Transport
nts and reliability, Flow control
Path determination and
Packet 3. Network
logical addressing
Media
Frame 2. Data Link Physical addressing
layers
Going from Media,
Not signal and binary
Bit layer 11.to 7: Please Do
Physical Throw Sausage
Pizza Away transmission
Going from layer 7 to 1: All People Seem To Need Data
Processing 20
21
Layer1: Physical Layer
Functions of the Physical Layer
 Bit synchronization: The physical layer provides the
synchronization of the bits by providing a clock. This clock controls
both sender and receiver thus providing synchronization at the bit
level.
 Bit rate control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission
rate i.e. the number of bits sent per second.
 Physical topologies: Physical layer specifies how the different,
devices/nodes are arranged in a network i.e. bus, star, or mesh
topology.
 Transmission mode: Physical layer also defines how the data flows
between the two connected devices. The various transmission
modes possible are Simplex, half-duplex and full-duplex.
 Note:
 Hub, Repeater, Modem, and Cables are Physical Layer devices.
 Network Layer, Data Link Layer, and Physical Layer are also known
as Lower Layers or Hardware Layers.

22
 Layer 2: Data Link Layer
Functions of the Data Link Layer
 Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a
way for a sender to transmit a set of bits that are meaningful to the
receiver. This can be accomplished by attaching special bit
patterns to the beginning and end of the frame.
 Physical addressing: After creating frames, the Data link layer
adds physical addresses (MAC addresses) of the sender and/or
receiver in the header of each frame.
 Error control: The data link layer provides the mechanism of error
control in which it detects and retransmits damaged or lost frames.
 Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both sides else
the data may get corrupted thus, flow control coordinates the
amount of data that can be sent before receiving an
acknowledgment.
 Access control: When a single communication channel is shared
by multiple devices, the MAC sub-layer of the data link layer helps
to determine which device has control over the channel at a given
time.

23
Layer 2: Data Link Layer
 Note:
 Packet in the Data Link layer is referred to
as Frame.
 Data Link layer is handled by the NIC
(Network Interface Card) and device drivers
of host machines.
 Switch & Bridge are Data Link Layer devices.

24
Layer 3: Network Layer
Functions of the Network Layer
 Routing: The network layer protocols determine
which route is suitable from source to destination.
This function of the network layer is known as routing.
 Logical Addressing: To identify each device inter-
network uniquely, the network layer defines an
addressing scheme. The sender & receiver’s IP
addresses are placed in the header by the network
layer. Such an address distinguishes each device
uniquely and universally.
 Note:
 Segment in the Network layer is referred to
as Packet.
 Network layer is implemented by networking devices
such as routers and switches.

25
 Layer 4: Transport Layer
Functions of the Transport Layer
 Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the
message from the (session) layer, and breaks the
message into smaller units. Each of the segments
produced has a header associated with it. The transport
layer at the destination station reassembles the message.
 Service Point Addressing: To deliver the message to
the correct process, the transport layer header includes a
type of address called service point address or port
address. Thus by specifying this address, the transport
layer makes sure that the message is delivered to the
correct process.
 Services Provided by Transport Layer
 Connection-Oriented Service
 Connectionless Service

26
Layer 4: Transport Layer
Note:
 Data in the Transport Layer is
called Segments.
 Transport layer is operated by the Operating
System. It is a part of the OS and
communicates with the Application Layer by
making system calls.
 The transport layer is called as Heart of the
OSI model.
 Device or Protocol Use : TCP, UDP
NetBIOS, PPTP

27
Layer 5: Session Layer
Functions of the Session Layer
 Session establishment, maintenance, and
termination: The layer allows the two processes
to establish, use, and terminate a connection.
 Synchronization: This layer allows a process to
add checkpoints that are considered
synchronization points in the data. These
synchronization points help to identify the error so
that the data is re-synchronized properly, and
ends of the messages are not cut prematurely and
data loss is avoided.
 Dialog Controller: The session layer allows two
systems to start communication with each other
in half-duplex or full-duplex.

28
Layer 5: Session Layer
 Note:
 Allthe below 3 layers(including Session
Layer) are integrated as a single layer in the
TCP/IP model as the “Application Layer”.
 Implementation of these 3 layers is done by
the network application itself. These are also
known as Upper Layers or Software
Layers.
 Device or Protocol Use : NetBIOS, PPTP.

29
Layer 6: Presentation Layer
Functions of the Presentation Layer
 Translation: For example, ASCII to EBCDIC.
 Encryption/ Decryption: Data encryption
translates the data into another form or code.
The encrypted data is known as the ciphertext
and the decrypted data is known as plain text. A
key value is used for encrypting as well as
decrypting data.
 Compression: Reduces the number of bits that
need to be transmitted on the network.

Note: Device or Protocol Use: JPEG, MPEG,

GIF
30
 Layer 7: Application Layer
This layer also serves as a window for the application
services to access the network and for displaying the
received information to the user.
Example: Application – Browsers, Skype Messenger,
etc
Functions of the Application Layer
 Network Virtual Terminal(NVT): It allows a user to log on
to a remote host.
 File transfer access and management(FTAM): This
application allows a user to access files in a remote host,
retrieve files in a remote host, and manage or control
files from a remote computer.
 Mail Services: Provide email service.
 Directory Services: This application provides distributed
database sources and access for global information about
various objects and services.

31
Layer 7: Application Layer
 Note: The OSI model acts as a reference
model and is not implemented on the
Internet because of its late invention. The
current model being used is the TCP/IP
model. by the application layer.
 Note: 1. The application Layer is also called
Desktop Layer.
2. Device or Protocol Use : SMTP

32
Layer 7: Application Layer
Some examples of application layer
implementations include –

◦ Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)

◦ File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
◦ Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)

33
OSI Feature
 Open system standards over the world
 Rigorously defined structured, hierarchical
network model
 Complete description of the function
 Provide standard test procedures

34
Introduction TCP/IP
 The Internet Protocol Suite (commonly
known as TCP/IP) is the set
of communications protocols used for
the Internet and other similar networks.

 It is named from two of the most important

protocols in it:
◦ the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
and
◦ the Internet Protocol (IP), which were the
first two networking protocols defined in
this standard.
35
TCP/IP Layers
OSI TCP/IP

Application Layer
Application Layer
TELNET, FTP, SMTP, POP3,
Presentation Layer
SNMP, NNTP, DNS,NIS, NFS,
HTTP, ...
Session Layer

Transport Layer Transport Layer

TCP , UDP , ...

Network Layer Internet Layer

IP , ICMP, ARP, RARP, ...

Data Link Layer

Link Layer
FDDI, Ethernet, ISDN, X.25,...
Physical Layer

36
TCP/IP Stack

37
TCP/IP Encapsulation

38
TCP/IP Some Protocol
Layer Protocol

DNS, TFTP, TLS/SSL, FTP, Gopher, HTTP, IMAP, IRC,

NNTP, POP3, SIP, SMTP, SMPP, SNMP, SSH, Telnet,
Echo, RTP, PNRP, rlogin, ENRP
Applicatio
n Routing protocols like BGP and RIP which run over
TCP/UDP, may also be considered part of the Internet
Layer.

Transport TCP, UDP, DCCP, SCTP, IL, RUDP, RSVP

IP (IPv4, IPv6), ICMP, IGMP, and ICMPv6

Internet OSPF for IPv4 was initially considered IP layer protocol

since it runs per IP-subnet, but has been placed on the
Link since RFC 2740.

Link ARP, RARP, OSPF (IPv4/IPv6), IS-IS, NDP

39
Computer Network Types
A computer network is mainly of four types:

◦ LAN(Local Area Network)

◦ PAN(Personal Area Network)
◦ MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
◦ WAN(Wide Area Network)
 LAN(Local Area Network)

 Local Area Network is a group of computers

connected to each other in a small area such as
building, office.
 LAN is used for connecting two or more personal
computers through a communication medium such as
twisted pair, coaxial cable, etc.
 It is less costly as it is built with inexpensive
hardware such as hubs, network adapters, and
ethernet cables.
 LAN(Local Area Network)

 The data is transferred at an extremely faster rate in Local

Area Network.
 Local Area Network provides higher security.
PAN(Personal Area Network)
 PAN(Personal Area Network)

 Personal Area Network is a network arranged within an

individual person, typically within a range of 10 meters.

 Personal Area Network is used for connecting the computer

devices of personal use is known as Personal Area Network.

 Thomas Zimmerman was the first research scientist to

bring the idea of the Personal Area Network.
 PAN(Personal Area Network)

 Personal Area Network covers an area of 30 feet.

 Personal computer devices that are used to develop

the personal area network are the laptop, mobile
phones, media player and play stations.
Types of Personal Area Network
 Types of Personal Area Network

 Wireless Personal Area Network: Wireless Personal Area

Network is developed by simply using wireless
technologies such as WiFi, Bluetooth.

 It is a low range network.

 Wired Personal Area Network: Wired Personal Area

Network is created by using the USB.
Examples Of Personal Area Network
 Body Area Network: Body Area Network is a network
that moves with a person.

 For example, a mobile network moves with a person.

Suppose a person establishes a network connection and
then creates a connection with another device to share the
information.
Examples Of Personal Area Network
 Offline Network: An offline network can be created
inside the home, so it is also known as a home network.

 A home network is designed to integrate the devices

such as printers, computer, television but they are not
connected to the internet.
MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
A metropolitan area network is a network that covers a
larger geographic area by interconnecting a different LAN
to form a larger network.
 Government agencies use MAN to connect to the citizens
and private industries.
 In MAN, various LANs are connected to each other
through a telephone exchange line.
 The most widely used protocols in MAN are RS-
232, Frame Relay, ATM, ISDN, OC-3, ADSL, etc.
 It has a higher range than Local Area
Network(LAN).
Uses Of Metropolitan Area Network:
 MAN is used in communication between the banks in a
city.

 It can be used in a college within a city.

 It can also be used for communication in the military.

WAN(Wide Area Network)
 WAN(Wide Area Network)

A Wide Area Network is a network that extends over a

large geographical area such as states or countries.
 A Wide Area Network is quite bigger network than the
LAN.
 A Wide Area Network is not limited to a single location,
but it spans over a large geographical area through a
telephone line, fiber optic cable or satellite links.
 The internet is one of the biggest WAN in the world.
 A Wide Area Network is widely used in the field of
Business, government, and education.
Advantages Of Wide Area Network
 Geographical area: A Wide Area Network provides a large
geographical area.
 Suppose if the branch of our office is in a different city then
we can connect with them through WAN.
 The internet provides a leased line through which we can
connect with another branch.
 Centralized data: In case of WAN network, data is
centralized. Therefore, we do not need to buy the emails,
files or back up servers.
 Get updated files: Software companies work on the live
server. Therefore, the programmers get the updated files
within seconds.
Advantages Of Wide Area Network
 Exchange messages: In a WAN network, messages are
transmitted fast. The web application like Facebook,
Whatsapp, Skype allows you to communicate with friends.

 Sharing of software and resources: In WAN network,

we can share the software and other resources like a hard
drive, RAM.

 Global business: We can do the business over the internet

globally.
Disadvantages of Wide Area Network
 Security issue: A WAN network has more security issues as
compared to LAN and MAN network as all the technologies
are combined together that creates the security problem.

 Needs Firewall & antivirus software: The data is transferred

on the internet which can be changed or hacked by the hackers,
so the firewall needs to be used.

 Some people can inject the virus in our system so antivirus is

needed to protect from such a virus.

 High Setup cost: An installation cost of the WAN network is

high as it involves the purchasing of routers, switches.
 Transmission modes

 The way in which data is transmitted from one device

to another device is known as transmission mode.
 The transmission mode is also known as the
communication mode.
 Each communication channel has a direction
associated with it, and transmission media provide the
direction. Therefore, the transmission mode is also
known as a directional mode.
 The transmission mode is defined in the physical
layer.
Types of Transmission modes
 Simplex mode
 Half-duplex mode
 Full-duplex mode
Simplex mode
 Simplex mode
 In Simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, i.e., the
data flow in one direction.

A device can only send the data but cannot receive it or it can
receive the data but cannot send the data.

 The radio station is a simplex channel as it transmits the signal

to the listeners but never allows them to transmit back.
 Simplex mode
 Keyboard and Monitor are the examples of the simplex
mode as a keyboard can only accept the data from the
user and monitor can only be used to display the data on
the screen.

 The main advantage of the simplex mode is that the full

capacity of the communication channel can be utilized
during transmission.
Advantage & Disadvantage of
Simplex mode
 Advantage of Simplex mode:
In simplex mode, the station can utilize the entire
bandwidth of the communication channel, so that more
data can be transmitted at a time.

 Disadvantageof Simplex mode

Communication is unidirectional, so it has no inter-
communication between devices.
Half-Duplex mode
 Half-Duplex mode
 In a Half-duplex channel, direction can be reversed, i.e., the
station can transmit and receive the data as well.

 Messages flow in both the directions, but not at the same time.

 The entire bandwidth of the communication channel is utilized

in one direction at a time.

A Walkie-talkie is an example of the Half-duplex mode. In

Walkie-talkie, one party speaks, and another party listens.

 After a pause, the other speaks and first party listens. Speaking
simultaneously will create the distorted sound which cannot be
understood.
Advantage & Disadvantage of Half-
duplex mode

 Advantage of Half-duplex mode:

In half-duplex mode, both the devices can send and receive
the data and also can utilize the entire bandwidth of the
communication channel during the transmission of data.

 Disadvantage of Half-Duplex mode:

In half-duplex mode, when one device is sending the data,
then another has to wait, this causes the delay in sending
the data at the right time.
Full-duplex mode
Full-duplex mode
 In Full duplex mode, the communication is bi-directional, i.e., the
data flow in both the directions.

 Both the stations can send and receive the message simultaneously.

 Full-duplex mode has two simplex channels. One channel has traffic
moving in one direction, and another channel has traffic flowing in
the opposite direction.

 The Full-duplex mode is the fastest mode of communication between

devices.

 The most common example of the full-duplex mode is a telephone

network. When two people are communicating with each other by a
telephone line, both can talk and listen at the same time.
Advantage & Disadvantage of Full-
duplex mode
 Advantage of Full-duplex mode:
Both the stations can send and receive the data at the
same time.

 Disadvantage of Full-duplex mode:

If there is no dedicated path exists between the devices,
then the capacity of the communication channel is
divided into two parts.
Connecting Device
 Repeater : A repeater is an electronic device
that receives a signal and retransmits it at a
higher level or higher power, so that the
signal can cover longer distances. Repeater is
used to extends the network and amplifies or
regenerates digital signals received . It works
on physical layer of the OSI Model.

70
HUB : It connects multiple computer to make
a single network segment. When using a hub,
every attached computers receive the
messages. Therefore, only one computer
connected to the hub is able to transmit at a
time. It works on physical layer of the OSI
Model.

71
Switch : Like a hub switch is also a common
convergence point of all computers of network
but it is clever than hub . Unlike the hub it is
able to read the MAC address of each frame it
receives and forward each frame to only to the
computer or computers to which a frame is
addressed. This speeds up the network and
reduces congestion. Switches operate at both
the physical layer and the data link layer of the
OSI Model.

72
Bridge : This device is used to broken large
network into more than one segments to reduce
the traffic of network. Bridge operates on data
link layer of the OSI Model.

73
Router : Router is internetworking used to
connect more than one network which works on
same protocol suit. It works on network layer of
the OSI Model. Router is also find the best route
to for packets to travel on the network. A router
has processor, memory and I/O interfaces.

74
Gateway : Gateway is inter networking used
to connect more than one network which works
on different protocol suit. It works on
application, presentation, session and network
layer of the OSI Model.

75
Internetworking :
Internetworking is the practice of connecting a
computer network with other networks through
the use of router or gateways that provide a
common method of routing information
packets between the networks.

76
World Wide Web (www) :
The World Wide Web (abbreviated as WWW or
W3 commonly known as the web) is a system
of interlinked hypertext documents accessed
via the Internet. With a web browser, one can
view web pages that may contain text,
images, videos, and other multimedia and
navigate between them via hyperlinks.

77
E- commerce
Electronic commerce, commonly known as E-
commerce or e-Commerce, is a type of industry
where the buying and selling of products or
services is conducted over electronic systems
such as the Internet and other computer
networks.

Electronic commerce draws on technologies such

as mobile commerce, electronic funds transfer,
supply chain management, Internet marketing,
online transaction processing, electronic data
interchange (EDI), inventory management
systems, and automated data collection systems.

78
(i) Business to Business (B2B): It describes e-
commerce conducted between businesses, such as
between a manufacturer and a wholesaler, or
between a wholesaler and a retailer
(ii) Business to consumer(B2C) : It describes e-
commerce conducted between companies/business
and the customers. Online shopping, online
marketing is the B2C e-commerce.
(iii) Business to government(B2G) : It is an e-
commerce that provides selling products, services
or information to governments or government
agencies.
(iv) Consumer to Business(C2B): It is the most
recent E-Commerce business model. In this model,
individual customers offer to sell products and
services to companies who are prepared to
purchase them. This business model is the opposite
of the traditional B2C model.
79