Discrete Structure
Links:
1. https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/discrete-mathematics-tuto
rial/?ref=header_search
2. https://www.csd.uwo.ca/~abrandt5/teaching/DiscreteStruc
tures/intro.html
CONDITIONAL STATEMENTS OR
IMPLICATIONS:
If p and q are statement variables, the conditional of q by p is “If
p then q” or “p implies q” and is denoted p → q.
p → q is false when p is true and q is false; otherwise it
is true.
The arrow "→ " is the conditional operator.
In p → q, the statement p is called the hypothesis (or
antecedent) and q is called the conclusion (or consequent).
Truth Table
LOGICAL EQUIVALENCE
INVOLVING IMPLICATION
Use truth table to show p→q ≡ ~q → ~p
Hence the given two expressions are equivalent.
IMPLICATION LAW
p→q ≡ ~p∨q
NEGATION OF A CONDITIONAL
STATEMENT:
Since p→q ≡ ~ p∨q
So ~ (p → q) ≡ ~ (~ p ∨ q)
≡ ~ (~ p) ∧ (~ q) by De Morgan’s law
≡ p ∧ ~ q by the Double Negative law
Thus the negation of “if p then q” is logically
equivalent to “p and not q”.
EXAMPLES
Write negations of each of the following statements:
1.If Ali lives in Pakistan then he lives in Lahore.
2.If my car is in the repair shop, then I cannot get to
class.
3.If x is prime then x is odd or x is 2.
4.If n is divisible by 6, then n is divisible by 2 and n is
divisible by 3.
SOLUTIONS:
1. Ali lives in Pakistan and he does not live in Lahore.
2. My car is in the repair shop and I can get to class.
3. x is prime but x is not odd and x is not 2.
4. n is divisible by 6 but n is not divisible by 2 or by 3.
INVERSE OF A CONDITIONAL
STATEMENT:
The inverse of the conditional statement p → q is ~p
→ ~q
A conditional and its inverse are not equivalent as
could be seen from the truth table.
WRITING INVERSE:
1. If today is Friday, then 2 + 3 = 5.
If today is not Friday, then 2 + 3 ≠ 5.
2. If it snows today, I will ski tomorrow.
If it does not snow today I will not ski tomorrow.
3. If P is a square, then P is a rectangle.
If P is not a square then P is not a rectangle.
4. If my car is in the repair shop, then I cannot get to class.
If my car is not in the repair shop, then I shall get to
the class.
CONVERSE OF A CONDITIONAL
STATEMENT:
The converse of the conditional statement p → q is q
→p.
A conditional and its converse are not equivalent.
i.e., → is not a commutative operator.
WRITING CONVERSE:
1.If today is Friday, then 2 + 3 = 5.
If 2 + 3 = 5, then today is Friday.
2.If it snows today, I will ski tomorrow.
I will ski tomorrow only if it snows today.
3. If P is a square, then P is a rectangle.
If P is a rectangle then P is a square.
4. If my car is in the repair shop, then I cannot get to class.
If I cannot get to the class, then my car is in the repair
shop.
CONTRAPOSITIVE OF A
CONDITIONAL STATEMENT:
The contra-positive of the conditional statement
p → q is ~ q → ~ p
A conditional and its contra-positive are equivalent.
Symbolically
p→q ≡ ~q → ~p
WRITING CONTRAPOSITIVE:
1.If today is Friday, then 2 + 3 = 5.
If 2 + 3 ≠ 5, then today is not Friday.
2.If it snows today, I will ski tomorrow.
I will not ski tomorrow only if it does not snow today.
3. If P is a square, then P is a rectangle.
If P is not a rectangle then P is not a square.
4. If my car is in the repair shop, then I cannot get to class.
If I can get to the class, then my car is not in the repair
shop.
EXERCISE:
1. Show that p→q ≡ ~ q → ~ p ( Use the truth table. )
2. Show that q→ p ≡ ~ p → ~ q ( Use the truth table. )
