Higher Maths

Revision Notes
Get Started
Functions and Graphs
goodbye
Functions and graphs
You should know the meaning of the terms domain and range of a function;

Recognise the probable

form of a function from
its graph

f : x → sin (ax + b), f: x → ax

(a > 1 and 0 < a < 1, x ∈ R)
f : x → cos (ax + b)
f: x → logax
(a > 1, x > 0)

functions with
Polynomial functions restricted domain

Composite function Inverse of a function

Given the graph of f(x) draw the graphs

of related functions, where f(x) is a simple
Complete
polynomial or trigonometric function Radian
the square.
measure.
 y=sin(ax
y=sin(ax +
+ b)
b) y=cos(ax
y=cos(ax +
+ b)
b)

1.5
1.5 1.5
1.5

Shift to
11 Shift to
left 11
left
0.5
0.5 0.5
0.5
y=
y= cos(ax
cos(ax +
+ b)
b)
y-sin(ax+b)
y-sin(ax+b) y=
y= cos(b)
cos(b)
00 y-sin(b)
y-sin(b) 00 yy =
= cos(ax)
cos(ax)
y=sin(ax)
y=sin(ax)
-0.5
-0.5 -0.5
-0.5

-1
-1 -1
-1

wavelen wavelen
-1.5
-1.5 -1.5
-1.5 gth
gth

In both graphs
• a = 360 ÷ wavelength. … the number of waves
in 360˚.
• b = shift to the left  a.
Example: Find the equation of the blue curve if it is of the
form y = sin(ax + b).
1.5
Imagine the red curve, the corresponding function
1 of the form y = sin(ax).
0.5
The wavelength is 120˚
0 The shift to the left is 60 – 40 = 20˚
0 20 40 60 80 100 120

-0.5
a = 360 ÷ 120 = 3
b = 20  3 = 60
-1

-1.5 The blue curve has equation y = sin(3x + 60)˚

Test
Yourself?
Exponential functions

y
y= a^x ;
= a^x a>1 y
y= a^x ;
= a^x 0>a>1

y 1a  a x
x

(1, (0,
a)  1)
(0, (1,
1) a)

Logarithmic functions

y
y== log
logaax
x
Note:
An exponential function
is the inverse of the
corresponding
(a,
1) log (a x ) x
logarithmic
a
function.

(1,
0) a log a x x
When a = e = 2·71828…

Test the function is called the

Yourself? exponential function.

Polynomial functions

polynomial
polynomial functions
functions 1
1 polynomial
polynomial functions
functions 2
2

10
10 10
10

8
8 8
8
6
6
6
6
4
4
4
4
2
2
constant
constant
cubic
cubic (order
(order 3)
3)
0
0 linear
linear 2
2
quartic
quartic (order
(order 4)
4)
-5
-5 -4
-4 -3
-3 -2
-2 -1
-1 0
0 1
1 2
2 3
3 4
4 5
5 quadratic
quadratic
-2
-2 0
0
-4
-4 -4
-4 -3
-3 -2
-2 -1
-1 0
0 1
1 2
2 3
3 4
4 5
5
-2
-2
-6
-6
-4
-4
-8
-8

-10
-10 -6
-6

In general a polynomial of order n will have at most n real roots and at most (n –
1) stationary points.

e.g. a cubic can have, at most, 3 real roots and 2 s.p.s

If a cubic has 3 real roots a, b and c then its equation will be of the form y =
k(x – a)(x – b)(x – c) where k is a constant.
If a, b and c are known then k can be calculated if one point the curve passes
through is also known.
Constant: y = a
When the brackets are expanded the cubic will have the form
linear: y = ax + b
y = px3 + qx2 + rx + s, where p, q, r, and s are constants and p ≠ 0
quadratic: y = ax2 + bx + c
Test cubic: y = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d
Similar statements can be made of the Yourself?
other polynomials.
quartic: y = ax4 + bx3 + cx2 +
dx + e
 Restricted domain

Reciprocal functions Square root function

yy =
= a/x
a/x yy =
= ¦x
¦x
Others
3.5
3.5

33

2.5
y = tan(x)
2.5
then x ≠ 90, 270
22 or 90 + 180n
1.5
where n is an integer.
1.5
-5
-5 -4
-4 -3
-3 -2
-2 -1
-1 00 11 22 33 44 55

11

0.5
0.5

00
00 11 22 33 44 55 66 77 88 99

y = log(x)
The denominator can never equal The term within the radical sign then x > 0
zero. must always be ≥ 0
So a value of x which makes this So any value of x which makes this
happen is not in the domain. negative is not in the domain.
a
y ; f (x) 0 y  f (x); f (x) 0
f x 
For example For example y = sin–1(x)
3 y = cos–1(x)
y then x  2  y  x  3 then x  3 then –1 ≥ x > 1
x 2

Test
Yourself?


inverse

If f(g(x)) = x and g(f(x)) = x for all x in the domain then we

say that f is the inverse of g and vice versa.

The inverse of f is denoted by f–1.

Examples [over suitable domains]

• f(x) = x2 … f–1(x)=
√x
• f(x) = sin(x) … f–1(x) = sin–
1
(x)
• f(x) = 2x + 3 … f–1(x) = (x –
3)/2
• f(x) = loga(x) … f–1(x) = ax
For the Higher exam you need not know how to find
the formula for the inverse of any function.
• f(x) = ex … f–1(x) = ln(x)

composites
Composite
functions
Example
Suppose we have two functions: f(x) = 3x + 4 and g(x) =
2x2 + 1.
We can use these definitions to create new functions:
1 f(f(x)) 2 g(g(x)) 3 f(g(x)) 4 g(f(x))
= f(3x + 4) = g(2x2 + 1) = f(2x2 + = g(3x + 4)
1)
= 3(3x + 4) = 2(2x2 + = 2(3x + 4)2 +
+ 4 1)2 + 1 = 3(2x2 + 4
1) + 4
= 9x + 16 = 8x4 + 8x2 = 18x2 + 48x +
+ 3 = 6x2 + 7 36
Things to note:
• A composition can be made from more than two functions
• Considering examples 1 and 2 leads to recurrence
relations e.g. f(f(f(f(x)))))
• In general f(g(x)) ≠ g(f(x)) … the order in which you
do things are important.
• If either f or g have restrictions on their domain, this
will affect the domain of the composite function.
• If f(g(x)) = x for all x in the domain then we say that f
Related functions

y = f(x y = f(x)
+ a)
[x-translation
+ a
[y-translation
of –a] of a]

y = f(x)

15

y = 10
af(x) in y-
[stretch y = –
direction] f(x)
[reflection in
5 x-axis]
y =
f(ax)
[squash in x- 0 y = f(–
direction] -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 x)
[reflection in
-5 y-axis]

-10

-15

y = f– y = f
1
(x) ´(x)
[The [The Test
inverse] derivative] Yourself?
Completing the square

2
x  a x 2  2ax  a 2
2
 x 2  2ax x  a  a 2

We can use this identity to simplify

quadratic expressions.


Example 1 Example 2
Express x + 6x + 1 in the form (x +
2 (a) Express 3x2 + 12x + 1 in the form a(x +
a)2 + b b)2 – c
(b) Find the smallest value the expression
can take.
Given x2 + 6x + 1
By inspection a = 6 ÷ 2 = 3 (a) Given 3x2 + 12x + 1,
Take 3 out as a common factor leaving the
So x2 + 6x + 1 = (x + 3)2 – 32 + 1 coefficient of x2 as 1
= (x + 3)2 – 8 So 3(x2 + 4x) +1 … focus on the red text.

By inspection a = 4 ÷ 2 = 2
Note: a = 3 and b = –8 So we get 3(x2 + 4x) +1 = 3[(x + 2)2 – 22] +
1
= 3(x + 2)2 – 12 + 1
= 3(x +2)2 – 11
Test
Yourself?(b) The smallest a perfect square can be is
zero.
So the smallest the expression can be
is 0 – 11 = 11.
radians

R
1
radia
Rn R

We can measure We can measure Mathematicians find it

angle size using angle size using convenient to use the
the degree (90˚ the grad radian.
- 1 right angle) (100 grads - 1 (π/2 radians = 1 right
right angle) angle.
degree  π ÷ 180 radian

radian  180 ÷ π degree

The values are often given in 30  6 radians

terms of π. 60  3 radians
90  2 radians
Test
Yourself? 45  4 radians
180  radians
 y = f(x
+ a)
[x-translation
of –a]

y = f(x+1)

15

10
–1
5

0
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

-5

-10

-15
 y = f(x)
+ a
[y-translation
of a]

y = f(x)-5

15

10

0
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
–
-5
5

-10

-15
 y = –f(x)

15

10
y = –
f(x)
[reflection in
5 x-axis]

0
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

-5

-10

-15
 y = f(–x)

15

10

0 y = f(–
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 x)
[reflection in
-5 y-axis]

-10

-15
 Stationary points of the
function correspond to
zeros of the derived function.

Negatve gradients of the Positive gradients of the

function correspond to function correspond to
Parts above the axis on the Parts below the axis on the
derived function. derived function.
y = f'(x)

15

+ –
10
– +
+ 5 –
+
–
+ 0 +
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
+ -5

+ -10
Gradient of the function is
shown in red-15

y = f
´(x)
[The
derivative]
When a function has an inverse then, if (x, y) lies on
the graph of the function,
(y, x) lies on the graph of the inverse function.
…one is the reflection of the other in the line y = x.
Inverse of a function

4 function
y=x
3 inverse

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

inverse of a function

Note that the

15

y = f– 10
example
1
(x) function does
[The 5
function
y=x not have an
inverse] inverse

inverse. The
reflection in y
0
-5 0 5 10 15

-5
= x has, for
example, 3
 y = f(2x)

15

10

y =
f(ax)
[squash in x- 0
direction] -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

-5

-10

-15
 y = 3f(x)

15

y = 10
af(x) in y-
[stretch
direction]
5

0
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

-5

-10

-15
suitable units, the distance of the tip of the rotor
tail of a helicopter can be calculated using a formula of the form
in(ax + b) + 10. The graph is shown below.

re the values of a and b

Rotor Distance

14
13
12
reveal
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120
suitable units, the distance of the tip of the rotor
Note:
tail of a helicopter can be calculated using a formula of the form
in(ax + b) + 10. The graph is shown below. The 10 translates the sine
wave 10 units up.
re the values of a and b
The 3 stretches the wave by a
factor of 3 in the y-
direction.
Rotor Distance
The wavelength, by
14
inspection, is 120˚.
13
12 a = 360 ÷ 120 = 3
11
10
9
8 One would expect the first
7
6
peak of y = sin(3x)
5 to occur at 90 ÷ 3 = 30.
4
3 It occurs at 15. Thus the
2
1
shift to the left is 30 –
0 15 = 15.
0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120
So b = shift  a = 15  3
= 45.

The equation is:

D = 3sin(3x + 45) + 10
 Eiffel Tower

350

300

250

200
height (m)

150

100 reveal

50

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
width from centre (m)

The profile of the Eiffel tower can be

modelled by the formula
y = a ln(bx)
where a and b are constants and y m is the
height of a spot on the profile and x is its
distance measured horizontally from the
centre.
When y = 0, x = 63. When y = 42, x = 40.
 Eiffel Tower

350

300
When y = 0, x = 63

250 y = a ln(bx)
 0 = a ln (63b)
200
 ln(63b) = 0
height (m)

 63b = 1
150
 b = 1/63

When y = 42, x = 40
100
y = a ln(bx)
 42 = a ln (40 ÷ 63)
50
 42 = a  –0·454255 …
(calculator)
0 a = –92 (to nearest whole
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
width from centre (m)
number)

The profile of the Eiffel tower can be

modelled by the formula Eiffel tower can be
modelled by
y = a ln(bx)
where a and b are constants and y m is the
height of a spot on the profile and x is its
y = –92 ln(x/63)
distance measured horizontally from the
centre.
When y = 0, x = 63. When y = 42, x = 40.
‘It fits where it
touches.’

1.5

0.5

sine
0
cubic
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

-0.5

reveal
-1

-1.5

As can be seen in the graph, there is a

simple cubic function which for –1 > x
> 1, and working in radians, behaves
almost the same as the sine wave. i.e.
sin(x)  px3 + qx2 + rx + s where p, q, r,
and s are constants.
(a) The roots of this cubic are ±6 and 0.
Express the cubic in terms of its
factors viz. k(x – a)(x – b)(x – c).
(b) We know sin(π/6) = 1/2. Use this to
find k as a simple fraction with a
unit numerator.
‘It fits where it
touches.’

1.5
(a)

  
1

y k(x  0) x  6 x 6
0.5

0
sine kx x 2  6
cubic
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

-0.5
(b)
  2 
-1
 1
2 k   6 3k
-1.5
6 36 
 k  1
6
As can be seen in the graph, there is a
simple cubic function which for –1 > x
> 1, and working in radians, behaves
almost the same as the sine wave. i.e.
sin(x)  px3 + qx2 + rx + s where p, q, r, 
and s are constants.
(a) The roots of this cubic are ±6 and 0.
Express the cubic in terms of its
factors viz. k(x – a)(x – b)(x – c).
(b) We know sin(π/6) = 1/2. Use this to
find k as a simple fraction with a
unit numerator.
A function is defined by f: x  (x2 –
x – 2)

Find the largest possible domain for

the function.

reveal
A function is defined by f: x 
(x2 – x – 2)
The function within the
radical sign must be greater
than or equal to zero.
Find the largest possible domain x 2  x  2 0
for the function.
 x  2x 1 0

y=x 2 – x – 2

 2

2
¦(x –x– 1

6 0
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
-1
5

-2
4
-3
3

2 The sketch of this quadratic

1 tells us that
x ≥ 2 or x ≤ –1.
0
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
-1 The sketch on the left shows
the function in question.
f(x) = 2x – 1 and g(x) = x2 + 2.

(a) Find an expression for f(g(x).

(b) In general f(g(x)) ≠g(f(x)).
However, in this case there are
two values of x for which
f(g(x)) = g(f(x)).
Find these values.

reveal
f(x) = 2x – 1 and g(x) = x2 + 2.

(a) Find an expression for f(g(x).

(b) In general f(g(x)) ≠g(f(x)),
(a) f(g(x) = f(x2 + 2)
however, in this case there are
= 2(x2 + 2) – 1
two values of x for which
f(g(x)) = g(f(x)). = 2x2 + 3
Find these values.
(b) g(f(x)) = g(2x – 1)
= (2x – 1)2 + 2
= 4x2 – 4x + 3
g(f(x)) = f(g(x)
 4x2 – 4x + 3 = 2x2 + 3
 2x2 – 4x = 0
 x(x – 2) = 0
 x = 0 or x = 2
 y = f(x)

2
(0·75,
1 1)
0
-2 -1 0 1 2 3
-1

-2

-3

-4

-5

reveal

The sketch shows part of the function

y = f(x)

(a) Draw a sketch of (i) y = f(–x)

(ii) y = f(1 – x)
(b) Make a sketch of y = f´(x)
 y = f(x)

5
y = f(-x)
4
(a 5
3
(i)) 4

2
(0·75, 3

1 1) 2

1
0 y = f(x)
0
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 y = f(-x)
-2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
-1 -1

-2
-2
-3

-3 y=f(1-x)
-4

-5 5
-4
(a 4
-5
(ii)) 3

1
y=f(x)
0 y=f(-x)
-2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 y=f(1-x)
-1

The sketch shows part of the function -2

y = f(x) -3

-4

-5

(a) Draw a sketch of (i) y = f(–x) (b) y=f'(x)

(ii) y = f(1 – x)
5

(b) Make a sketch of y = f´(x) 4

1
y=f(x)
0
y=f'(x)
-2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
-1

-2

-3

-4

-5
Where completing the square
is useful

Q1 Find the maximum value of the

function defined by:
1
f :x 2
x  4x  9


reveal

Q2 Prove that y = 3x3 + 3x2 + 5x + 1

is an increasing function.
Where completing the square
is useful
Q1 In Higher maths you don’t know
Q1 Find the maximum value of the how to differentiate this
function defined by: function.
1 Complete the square on the
f :x 2 denominator:
x  4x  9 x2 + 4x + 9 = (x + 2)2 – 22 + 9
= (x + 2)2 + 5.
The smallest this expression
can be is when the bracket
takes the value zero …

When x = –2, the expression is
worth 5.
This is when the function will
Q2 To
beprove
at itsthe function is always
biggest.
increasing , you have to prove
f(–2) = dy1/5
Q2 Prove that y = 3x3 + 3x2 + 5x + 1 that the derivative is always
9x 2  6x  5
positive.dx
is an increasing function.
Complete the square:
9x 2  6x  5 9x 2  69 x   5 9x 2  23 x   5

   
9 x  13   13   5 9 x  13   19  5
2 2 2

9x  13   1 5
2

9x  13   4
2

The minimum value of the

derivative is 4.
 Thus its always positive and thus
Always increasing.
Many repetitive situations can be modelled
by the sine function.
Using suitable units the distance of the
star from the centre of the picture can be
modelled by D = 2 sin x where x is measured
in radians.

reveal

Solve the equation 2sin x = 1

for 0 ≥ x ≥ 4π
Many repetitive situations can be modelled
by the sine function.
Using suitable units the distance of the
star from the centre of the picture can be
modelled by D = 2 sin x where x is measured
in radians.
2sin x 1
 sin x  12
 x  6 or   
6  66  
6  56
or any number of complete
revolutions more (or
less) than these two
 solutions …
x  6 or 5
6
or 2š + 6 or 2š + 56
or 4š + 6 or 4š + 56
x  6 , 56 , 13
6
, 17
6
, 25
6
, 29
6

Solve the equation 2sin x = 1

All other ‘answers’ are outside
for 0 ≥ x ≥ 4π  the desired range.