Thinking

Critically, and
Creatively
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 Critical Thinking
Picture this:
• You’re in the library. It’s late, and you’re tired. You’re
supposed to be studying for your political
science test, but instead of thinking about foreign
policy, your mind begins drifting toward the
foreign vacation you took last summer, how
tan you were when you returned, how much fun it was
to be with your best friends, and where you’d like to
visit next.
• Would the mental process you’re engaging
in while sitting in the library be called
thinking?
 Critical Thinking
• Here, thinking is defined as a focused
cognitive activity you engage in
purposefully.
• You direct your thoughts toward a
particular topic.
• You’re the active thinker, not the
passive daydreamer who is the
victim of a wandering mind.
• Focused thinking involves zeroing in
and managing your attention.
• It’s deliberate and intentional, not
haphazard or accidental. You choose to do
it for a reason.
 Critical Thinking
• Did you know that developing your critical
thinking skills goes hand in hand with
developing your intellectual capacities as a
college student?
• Early on, most students view the world in terms of right or
wrong, good or bad, black or white. They see teachers
as having the right answers, and students as
the recipients of the right answers from
teachers.
• Later they come to understand that knowledge depends on
context. They no longer wait for the “truth” to be handed
down by instructors. Instead, they begin to value
their own and others’ opinions and perceive
multiple points of view as valid .
 Critical Thinking
• Toward the end of their college careers or in graduate
school, students develop their own personal
values, recognize that not all views are
equal (some are better than others), and
learn how to select the best alternative .
• The point is that your critical thinking skills are
developing as you go.
• Rarely does anyone have already fully
developed critical thinking skills as a
college freshman.
 Critical Thinking
• Critical thinking is a Example
particular kind of • Movie critics are critical thinkers
focused thinking. because they look at a variety
• It is purposeful,
of standards (screenplay, acting,
production quality, costumes,
reasoned, and cinematography, and so forth) and
goal-directed. then decide how a movie measures
up.
• It’s thinking that aims
to solve problems, • When you’re thinking
calculate critically, you’re not just
fault-finding.
likelihood, weigh
• You’re being discerning of both faults
evidence, and and strengths. You’re looking at how
make decisions. things measure up
The Question Pyramid is an interesting way of looking at focused thinking. As you move
up the pyramid, formulating and answering questions become increasingly difficult.
• Level 1 questions that Professor Courtney might ask are
observable, obvious, and one-dimensional. They can be
answered with a yes or no answer: “Do philosophers
study ethics?” Not too challenging.
• Level 2 questions are slightly more challenging. They consist of
the standard who and what questions, like, “Who is called the
‘Father of Ethics’?” “What is ethics?” Level 2 questions
are straightforward. They could be answered by
memorizing a section of the textbook.
• Level 3 questions require actual critical thinking, “Why is
the young lady in Professor Courtney’s story conflicted?” “Why is
ethics studied by philosophers?” You’d need to develop your
answer by thinking about possibilities, selecting
a response, and backing it up with evidence.
• Level 4 questions require creative thinking, “What would a
society entirely without ethics be like?” “How do you balance
ethics and practicality?” Formulating answers to level
Question Pyramid
4 questions requires you to think for yourself
and come up with your own unique, creative
responses.
Exercise 5.1 And Just Why is Critical Thinking Important?
 A Four-part Model of Critical Thinking
• Now that we’ve defined critical
thinking, let’s ask an important
related question: How do you
do it?
• Reasoning
• Problem Solving
• Decision Making
• Thinking About Your
Thinking
I. Reasoning: The Foundation of
Critical Thinking
• Reasoning, the foundation of critical thinking, is
the ability to infer a conclusion from one or
more arguments.
• A strong argument is convincing because it
offers evidence to back up its claim.
• If no one would disagree with what you’re
saying, it’s not an argument. It’s self-evident.
Example:
“Grass is green” is not an argument.
But “Cows that are grass-fed make the best meat” (if
supporting evidence is provided) is.
I. Reasoning: The Foundation of
Critical Thinking
• Critical thinking is about arguments.
• Critical thinking is about an argument that one person puts
forth.
Examples
• An op-ed piece in the newspaper contains an argument. (Op-ed stands for the
page “opposite the editorial page” that features signed articles expressing
personal viewpoints.)
• Both attorneys—prosecution and defense—put forth their closing arguments
at the end of a trial.
• A politician puts forth an argument about where he stands on the issues.
• A professor puts forth an argument to persuade her class to learn important
content in her discipline.
• Arguments are said to be inductive or deductive.
 I. Reasoning: Induction vs. Deduction

• Inductive arguments go from

specific observations to
general conclusions.
Example
• In criminal trials, the prosecution
puts together individual pieces of
evidence to prove that the
defendant is guilty:
• eyewitnesses put him at the scene,
• the gun store salesman remembers
selling him a pistol, and Inductive Arguments
• his fingerprints are on the weapon.
 I. Reasoning: Induction vs.
Deduction
• Deductive arguments go
from broad generalizations
to specific conclusions.
Example
• All serial killers have a particular
psychological profile.
• The defendant has this
psychological profile.
• Therefore the defendant is the
killer. (the conclusion) Deductive Arguments
 I. Reasoning : Relevance and
Adequacy
Example 1
• If I tell you that two plus two equals
four, chances are good that you’ll
• Arguments propose a line believe me.
of reasoning. • If, on the other hand, I tell you two
• They try to persuade. plus two equals five, you’ll flatly deny
• Arguments contain clear it.
reasons to believe
someone or something. Example 2
• If I say “Cats have fur.” “Dogs have
fur.” “Therefore dogs are cats,” you’ll
tell me I’m crazy—because it’s an
unsound argument.
 I. Reasoning : Relevance and
Adequacy
• A scientist decided to embark on a new study to find out
what intoxicates people.
• He devised an experiment to proceed in an orderly,
methodical way.
• On Monday night, he drank three tall glasses of scotch and
water, mixed in equal proportions. The next morning, he
recorded his results: intoxication.
• On Tuesday night, he drank three tall glasses of whiskey and
water.
• On Wednesday night, he drank three tall glasses of rum and
water.
https://www.praguepost.com/articles/2008/03/19/who-says-czech-scientists-have-a-drinking-problem.ph
• On Thursday night, he drank three tall glasses of vodka and
water.
• Each morning, his recorded results were identical. He had
become highly intoxicated.
• His erroneous conclusion? Water makes people
drunk.
 I. Reasoning : Relevance and
Adequacy
Two things are required to judge the soundness
of an argument:
Releva Adequa
nce
Look at an example: Now look atcy
this example:

“I don’t see why all students have to take an “Everyone taking Math 100 failed the
introductory writing course. It’s a free test last Friday. I took the test last
country. Students shouldn’t have to take Friday. Therefore, I will probably get an
courses they don’t want to take.” F in the course.”

Is the statement “It’s a free country”

relevant? What does living in a free
How many tests are left in the
country have to do with courses that
course? What other assignments
college students are required to take?
figure into students’ grades? The
Nothing.
information present may not be
adequate to predict an F in the
course.
 I. Reasoning: Analyzing Arguments

Sound or
Unsound?
Is it
Relevant?
Is it
Adequate?
Is it Logical?

Few people think more than two or three times a year.

I have made an international reputation for myself by
thinking once or twice a week.
George Bernard Shaw, Irish literary critic, playwright, and
essayist, 1925 Nobel Prize for Literature (1856–1950) moralist
© 2018 Cengage. All rights reserved.
 I. Reasoning: Assessing
Assumptions
• Assumptions are things you take
for granted, and they can limit your
thinking.
• Understand your own assumptions
and see an argument in new ways.
“A woman from New York
married ten different men from
that city, yet she did not break
https://www.usiu.ac.ke/1810/school-pharmacy-health-sciences-carries-out-orientation-for-new-cohort-students/

any laws. None of these men

What we need is not the will to
died, and she never divorced. believe, but the will to find out.
How was this possible?” Bertrand Russell, British philosopher,
logician, and mathematician
Think! What assumptions are
 I. Reasoning: Considering Claims
Generally speaking, be wary of claims that:
are supported by unidentified sources (“Experts claim . . . ”).
are made by a person or company who stands to gain (“Brought
to you by the makers of . . .”).
come from a single person claiming his experience as the norm (“I
tried it and it worked for me!”).
use a bandwagon appeal (“Everybody’s doing it.”).
mislead with statistics (“over half” when it’s really only
50.5 percent).
© 2018 Cengage. All rights reserved.
 Avoid Faulty Reasoning
1. False Cause and Effect: 4. Emotional Appeal: (appealing
(assuming one cause for something to someone’s feelings in order to
when other causes are possible, too) gain acceptance of an argument)
I moved into my new dorm room last month.
I’ve failed every exam I’ve taken since then. If you care about the institution that
made you what you are today, you’ll
2. Personal Attack: (reacting to a dig deep into your pockets and send
challenge by attacking the a financial contribution now.
challenger)
How could anyone believe Professor
Courtney’s views on ethics? We all know 5. False Authority: (attributing
he’s a very poor teacher your argument to someone else in a
3. Unwarranted Assumption: supposed position of power to get
(taking too much for granted without you off the hook)
evidence) I’d really like to be able to change
You say universities give women equal
opportunities. I say they don’t. Reply: It’s your grade, but my Department
true. I read it on a website Chair frowns upon that.
 Avoid Faulty Reasoning
6. Hasty Conclusion: (jumping to 8. Shifting the Burden of Proof: (shifting
the responsibility of proving an assertion to
a conclusion when other someone else because you have no evidence
conclusions are possible) for what you assert)
I’m sure my roommate stole my The zero-tolerance policy on alcohol in the
residence halls is working. Reply: No, it’s not.
textbook. He’s too cheap to buy his
Reply back: Oh yeah? Prove it
own.
9. Oversimplification or
7. Straw Man: (attempting to Overgeneralization: (reducing a complex
issue to something very simple or
“prove” an argument by stereotyping)
overstating, exaggerating, or College professors have it made. They teach
oversimplifying the arguments of a couple classes a week for a few hours, and
then they have free time the rest of the week.
the opposing side) That’s the kind of job I want!
We should relax the entrance
requirements to help attract more 10. Either/Or Thinking: (taking only an
students. extreme position on an issue when other
positions are possible)
Either we ban alcohol on campus or we’ll go
Reply: You actually want the quality bankrupt from lawsuits
 Rocky Mountain State University
Exercise 5.2 Case Study and Simulation
 II. Problem Solving: The Basic
How-To’s
• When you have to solve a problem, your critical thinking
skills should move front and center.
Example
• You need to find a way to earn more money.
• You run short each month, and the last few days
before payday are nerve racking.
• What should you do? Use a gunshot approach and try
many different strategies at once or devise a more
precise way to get the best results?
 II. Problem Solving: How-To’s
STEP 1: Define the problem.
• What is the exact nature of the problem you face?
Example
Is it that you don’t meter your spending and run out of money long before the next
paycheck?
Is it that you don’t have a budget and you spend money randomly?
STEP 2: Brainstorm Possible Solutions.
• List all of the possible solutions you can come up with.
Example
Eat all your meals in the residence hall instead of hitting the fast-food joints so often.
Stop ordering in pizza four nights a week when you get the munchies at midnight.
Ask your parents for more money.
Look for a job that pays more.
Capitalize on your particular skills to earn extra money. If you’re a whiz at math, you
could sign on as a tutor at the Math Learning Center on campus.
 II. Problem Solving: How-To’s
STEP 3: Devise criteria to evaluate each option.
Example
 Good pay is important. In the past, you’ve always had low-paying jobs. You need
whatever solution you arrive at to be worth your while.
 Time is important. You’re taking a challenging load of classes, and you need to keep
up your grades to keep your scholarship.

STEP 4: Evaluate each option you’ve proposed.

Example
 Eat all your meals in the residence hall. (This is a good idea because you’ve already
paid for those meals, regardless of which solution you choose.)
 Stop ordering in pizza four nights a week. (This is also a good option because
impromptu expenses like this can mount exponentially.)
 Ask your parents for more money. (You’d really like to avoid this option. You know
they’re already making sacrifices to help you through school.)
 Get a job that pays more. (Unfortunately, your campus is half an hour from the center
of town where all the posh restaurants are.)
 Capitalize on your particular skills to earn extra money. (Tutors are paid more than
minimum wage, and the Math Learning Center is across from your residence hall.)
 II. Problem Solving: How-To’s
STEP 5: Choose the best solution.
In this case, it looks like the Math Learning Center fits the bill!
STEP 6: Plan how to achieve the best solution.
When you call the Math Learning Center to find out how to apply,
you discover that you need a letter of recommendation from a
math professor. You e-mail your calculus professor and set up a
meeting for later in the week. When the letter is ready, you call
the Math Learning Center again to make an appointment to
schedule an interview, and so forth.
STEP 7: Implement the solution and evaluate the
results.
A month or two after you take on the tutoring job, you evaluate if
this solution is really the best one. You may need to request
more hours or different days.
Control: Got Grit?
 III. Decision Making: What’s
Your Style?
• Arguments lead to decisions, and it’s important to make
good ones!
• When you have an important decision to make, your
critical thinking skills should kick into
action.
• The more important the decision, chances are the more
thoughtful the process of deciding should be.
• People make decisions in their own way.
 III. Decision Making: What’s Your
Style?
Directive
This decision-making style emphasizes the here
and now. Directives prefer structure and using
practical data to make decisions. They look for
speed, efficiency, and results, and focus on short-
Directive term fixes.

Analytical
This decision-making style emphasizes a logical
approach. Analyticals search carefully for the best
decision, and they sometimes get hung up with
Analyti
overanalyzing things and take too long to finally
cal
make a decision.
 III. Decision Making: What’s
Your Style?
Conceptual
This decision-making style emphasizes the
big picture. Conceptuals are adaptable,
insightful, and flexible, and they look for
innovative solutions. They are sometimes
too idealistic, but they take risks and are
Conceptual very creative.

Behavioral
This decision-making style emphasizes
people. Behaviorals enjoy people and the
social aspects of work. They use their
feelings to assess situations, communicate
well, and are supportive of others.
Behavioral
Exercise 5.3 Decision Style Inventory
 Thinking about Your Thinking
• As you’re solving problems, you’re thinking about how
you’re thinking.
• You’re assessing your progress as you go, analyzing the
strengths and weaknesses in your thinking, and perhaps
even coming up with better ways to do it.
• We call that metacognition: Thinking about
your thinking.
• Whenever you’re faced with learning something new,
metacognition involves three elements:
Development of a plan of action,
Monitoring the plan and Evaluation of the
 IV. Thinking about Your Thinking:
Before: Develop a plan of action
Ask yourself what you already know that can help you learn
something new.
• What direction do you want to go in your thinking?
• What should be your first task?
• How much time should you give yourself?
• Talk through your plan with someone else.
During: Monitor your plan
While you’re working, ask yourself how you’re doing.
• Are you staying on track?
• Are you moving in the right direction?
• Should you slow down or speed up?
• What should you do if you don’t understand what you’re doing?
After: Evaluate your plan
Give yourself some feedback.
• How well did you do?
• Did you do better than expected or not as well as you expected?
• What could you have done differently?
 Becoming a Better Critical Thinker
1. Admit when you don’t know.
If you don’t know enough to think critically about something, admit it, and
then find out more.
2. Realize you have buttons that can be pushed.
We all have issues we’re emotional about. It’s natural to feel strongly about
some things, but it’s also important to understand the reasons why so
that you can articulate your views to someone else.
3. Learn more about the opposition.
But part of being a well-educated person means learning about the history,
backgrounds, values, and techniques of people you disagree with so that you
can anticipate and deal with their arguments more effectively.
4. Trust and verify.
Being a good critical thinker means achieving a balance between blind
faith and healthy skepticism.
5. Remember that critical thinking is the foundation of all academic
achievement.
In college and in life, critical thinking will make you a better college student,
a better citizen, a better employee, a savvier consumer, a better relational
partner, and a better lifelong learner.
 Unleash Your Creativity!
• Creativity affects us all.
• Some of inventions haven’t made a big
impact. But other inventions affect you
every single day.
Examples
Microsoft Windows, PlayStation, DVDs, Cell
phones, IMAX movies, the artificial heart,
High-speed Internet, etc.
• Misconception: You have to be an
artist to be creative.
• Creativity simply means finding new and
better ways to do things.
• It’s a choice you make; you decide to be
 Unleash Your Creativity!
• Recall: Creative thinking is at the top of the
pyramid.
• It goes beyond critical thinking, is predictive, and
multidimensional.
• It asks “What if . . .?” questions. Here are
some interesting ones:
“What if everyone was allowed to tell one lie per
day?”
“What if no one could perceive colors?”
“What if universities didn’t exist?”
 Thinking Creatively: What’s Your Style?
Intuitive
This creative style is best described as resourceful. If
you are an
Intuitive, you achieve goals, use common sense, and
work to solve
problems. You focus on results and rely on past
experience to guide your actions.
Intuitive Managers, actors, and politicians are commonly
Intuitives.

Innovative
This creative style is best described as curious.
Innovatives concentrate on problem solving, are
systematic, and rely on data. They use original
approaches, are willing to experiment, and focus on
Innovative systematic inquiry.
 Thinking Creatively: What’s Your Style?
Imaginative
This creative style is best described as insightful.
Imaginatives are willing to take risks, have leaps of
imagination, and are independent thinkers. They are able to
visualize opportunities, are artistic, enjoy writing, and think
outside the box.
Artists, musicians, writers, and charismatic leaders are often
Imaginatives.
Imaginative

Inspirational
This creative style is best described as visionary.
Inspirationals respond to societal needs, willingly give of
themselves, and have the courage of their convictions. They
focus on social change and the giving of themselves toward
achieving it.
They are often educators, motivational leaders, and writers.
Inspirational
Exercise 5.4 Creative Potential Profile
 Ten Ways to Become a More Creative Thinker

1.Find new eyes.

Find a new perspective on old issues
2. Accept your creativity.
Many mindsets block creative thinking: “It can’t be done!” “I’m just not the creative
type.” “I might look stupid!” Many people don’t see themselves as creative. This
perception can become a major stumbling block.
3. Make your thoughts visible.
Sometimes if we write something down or sketch something out, we generate
a new approach without really trying.
4. Generate lots of ideas.
“The best way to get a good idea is to get lots of ideas.”
5. Don’t overcomplexify.
Sometimes the most simple solution is the best one.
Ten Ways to Become a More Creative Thinker
6. Capitalize on your mistakes.
Thomas Edison tried anything he could think of for a filament for the incandescent lamp, including a
whisker from his best friend’s beard. Afterwards he said, “I’ve gained a lot of knowledge—I
now know a thousand things that won’t work.”
7. Let it flow.
Pick an enjoyable activity that is at or slightly above your ability level, screen out
distractions, focus all your senses and emotions, and look for regular feedback on
how you’re doing.
8. Bounce ideas off others.
One good way to become more creative is to use your family or friends as sounding
boards.
9. Stop searching for the “right” answer.
There may be more than one acceptable solution. Fear of mistakes can be debilitating.
10. Detach your self-concept.
Your idea may not succeed on its own, but it may feed into someone else’s idea and improve it.
Exercise 5.5 Generating Creative Captions
Chapter 5 Audio Summary

Download Chapter 5 Audio Summary Transcript (Download Chapter 5 Audio Summary Transcript.txt)
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