Quantitative Methods

 Quantitative methods emphasize objective measurements

and the statistical, mathematical, or numerical analysis of
data collected through polls, questionnaires, and surveys, or
by manipulating pre-existing statistical data
using computational techniques. Quantitative research
focuses on gathering numerical data and generalizing it
across groups of people or to explain a particular
phenomenon.
 The goal of the researcher in conducting quantitative
research study is to determine the relationship between one
thing [an independent variable] and another [a dependent
variable] within a population. Quantitative research designs
are either descriptive [subjects usually measured once]
or experimental [subjects measured before and after a
treatment]. A descriptive study establishes only associations
between variables; an experimental study establishes
causality.
 Why Do We Need the Quantitative Method?
 The quantitative method is crucial in research and decision-making for several reasons:
 Objective Analysis: Quantitative methods provide a framework for obtaining objective data that
can be universally measured and analyzed. This reduces the influence of personal biases and
subjectivity in interpreting results.
 Generalizability: Using statistical methods to analyze data from a sample, quantitative research
allows for conclusions that can be generalized to a larger population. This is particularly valuable
in fields like medicine or economics, where researchers must broadly apply findings.
 Predictive Capabilities: Quantitative analysis often involves developing models to predict
outcomes based on measurable variables. These predictions are essential in weather forecasting,
finance, and logistics.
 Replicability: The structured nature of quantitative research, emphasizing precise measurement
and replicable procedures, ensures that studies can be repeated. This replication is key to
verifying results and building on existing knowledge.
 Statistical Validity: Quantitative research uses statistical tools to validate hypotheses. This
provides a robust framework for testing theories and establishing facts with a known degree of
accuracy.
 Decision Making: Quantitative methods are used to make informed decisions in business and
policy-making. For example, by analyzing customer data, businesses can optimize their
strategies to meet market demands better.
 Quantitative Methods
 In quantitative studies, investigators use quantitative research questions and
hypotheses, and sometimes objectives, to shape and specifically focus the
purpose of the study. Quantitative research questions inquire about the
relationships among variables that the investigator seeks to know.
 Quantitative hypotheses, on the other hand, are predictions the researcher makes
about the expected outcomes of relationships among variables. They are numeric
estimates of population values based on data collected from samples. Testing of
hypotheses employs statistical procedures in which the investigator draws
inferences about the population from a study sample. Hypotheses are used often
in experiments or intervention trials in which investigators compare groups.
Advisers sometimes recommend their use in a formal research project, such as a
dissertation or thesis, as a means of stating the direction a study will take.
Objectives, on the other hand, indicate the goals or objectives for a study. They
often appear in proposals for funding, but tend to be used with less frequency in
social and health science research. Because of this, the focus here will be on
research questions and hypotheses.
 Inferences

Gary King, Robert Keohane defines inference as “the process of using the facts we know to
learn about facts we do not know.” This definition underscores the basic point that we can never
know all of the facts, so the knowledge we construct is always built on inference. On a daily
basis, consciously or subconsciously, we are constantly observing the world around us and
making inferences based on these observations. We cannot directly know how someone is
feeling, but we observe facial features, like a frown or a smile, and make an inference about
those feelings. We may not have time to stop and talk to protesters downtown, but we may be
able to infer from their signs or chants what is motivating them to protest. We may see a long
line outside of a local restaurant and infer that they must serve delicious food.
There are two types of inferences we might formulate about the world— descriptive and causal.
An easy way to think about the difference between these two types of inference is to consider
the difference between describing something and explaining something. A descriptive
inference is an inference we make about how the world is (or was)—it is the act of describing
some aspect of the world. For example, you may notice that people you know seem to have
more intense political disagreements than they used to. Based on this observation, you might
infer that Americans are more politically polarized than they used to be. In this case, you would
be using the facts you know (the intensity of political disagreements among your
acquaintances) to infer something you cannot directly observe (how much Americans disagree
about political issues): a descriptive inference.
 Inferences

In many cases, we want to go a step further than merely making a descriptive inference. In
addition to knowing something about how the world is, we often want to know why the
world is that way—we want to explain. For example, if we determine that Americans are
more polarized than they used to be, we might want to know why they are more polarized.
Answering this question will require us to make a different type of inference called a causal
inference. Causal inferences are inferences we make about why something happens. This
is where our theory and hypotheses come into play. If we conduct a study of racial attitudes
and vote choice and conclude that racially prejudiced Caucasian voters are less likely to
vote for Barack Obama, then we would be making a causal inference.
 Sample of questionnaire
1. Are you registered to vote at the current address  Most likely to vote
you reside at?  Probably won’t vote
 Yes  Don’t know
 No  I won’t vote
2. Do you think the existing government is going in
5. Your age group:
the right direction to benefit the people of the
country?  18-25
 Yes  26-40
 No  41-55
3. Which party do you support to handle sensitive  56-65
topics such as national security?  66+
 Democrats
6. Education:
 Republicans  Postgraduate education
 Don’t know  University Diploma
 I don’t support any party  Some college credit, no degree
4. How likely are you to vote in the coming elections?  Trade/technical/vocational training
 Certain to vote
 Nəzəriyyə və tədqiqat
 1. Axırıncı prezident seçkisində iştirak etmisinizmi?
• Bəli (2-ci suala keçin)
• Xeyir (3-cü suala keçin)
 2. Nəyə görə iştirak etmişiniz? (Birdən çox variant seçə bilərsiniz)
 Siyasi iştirak hüququmdan istifadə etmək istədim
 SƏs verdiyim namizədin platformasını bəyəndim
 Başqa______________________________
 3. Nəyə görə iştirak etməmisiniz? (Birdən çox variant seçə bilərsiniz)
 Namizədlərin platformasını bəyənmədim
 İmkanın yox idi (məsələn, ölkə xaricində idim, xəstə idim və s.)
 Başqa______________________________
 4. İş vəziyyətiniz necədir?
 İşləyirəm
 Işsizəm
 Nəzəriyyə və tədqiqat
 5. Neçə yaşınız var?
• 18-25
• 26-40
• 41-55
• 56-65
• 66+
 6. İxtisas dərəcəniz nədir?
 Peşə məktəbini bitirmişəm
 Orta təhsilliyəm
 Ali təhsilliyəm
 Heç təhsil almamışam
 Correlation and Causation

 Correlation is a statistical measure (expressed as a number) that describes the size

and direction of a relationship between two or more variables. A correlation between
variables, however, does not automatically mean that the change in one variable is
the cause of the change in the values of the other variable.
 Causation indicates that one event is the result of the occurrence of the other
event; i.e. there is a causal relationship between the two events. This is also
referred to as cause and effect.
 Theoretically, the difference between the two types of relationships are easy to
identify — an action or occurrence can cause another (e.g. smoking causes an
increase in the risk of developing lung cancer), or it can correlate with another (e.g.
smoking is correlated with alcoholism, but it does not cause alcoholism). In practice,
however, it remains difficult to clearly establish cause and effect, compared with
establishing correlation.
 Correlation and Causation
 In 1988, the Dean of Harvard University interviewed new
undergraduates and found that students who took SAT prep courses
scored 63 points lower on the SAT than those who did not. The dean
concluded that the courses had no effect or significance. This is a
great example of mixing the concepts of causation and correlation.
Who were the students who took the SAT prep courses the most? The
students who needed the most help on the exams, of course! So the
professor concluded that those who had the most help on the exams
performed worse. The reason the students performed worse on the
SAT was not because they took the prep courses; it was because the
students who naturally performed poorly on the exams took the
courses.
Difference between Correlation and
Causation
Difference between Correlation and Causation
Difference between Correlation and Causation
Difference between Correlation and Causation

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