Chapter 4

Digital
Transmission

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 Chapter 4: Outline

4.1 DIGITAL-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION

4.2 ANALOG-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION

4.1 TRANSMISSION MODES

 Chapter4: Objective

 The first section discusses digital-to-digital conversion. Line

coding is used to convert digital data to a digital signal. Several
common schemes are discussed. The section also describes block
coding, which is used to create redundancy in the digital data
before they are encoded as a digital signal. Redundancy is used
as an inherent error detecting tool. The last topic in this section
discusses scrambling, a technique used for digital-to-digital
conversion in long-distance transmission.

 The second section discusses analog-to-digital conversion. Pulse

code modulation is described as the main method used to sample
an analog signal. Delta modulation is used to improve the
efficiency of the pulse code modulation.
 Chapter4: Objective (continued)

 The third section discusses transmission modes. When we want

to transmit data digitally, we need to think about parallel or
serial transmission. In parallel transmission, we send multiple
bits at a time; in serial transmission, we send one bit at a time.
 4-1 DIGITAL-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION

 In Chapter 3, we discussed data and signals.

 We said that data can be either digital or analog.
We also said that signals that represent data can
also be digital or analog.
 In this section, we see how we can represent
digital data by using digital signals.
 The conversion involves three techniques: line
coding, block coding, and scrambling.
 Line coding is always needed; block coding and
scrambling may or may not be needed.
4.5
 ITS323/CSS331
Signal Encoding Techniques
Signal Encoding
I Signals transmitted chosen to optimize use of
Introduction
transmission medium
Digital Data,
Digital Signals � E.g. conserve bandwidth, minimize errors
Digital Data,
Analog Signals
I Digital signaling: digital or analog data encoded into
Analog Data,
digital signal
Digital Signals
I Analog signaling: digital or analog data transmitted by
Analog Data,
Analog Signals analog carrier signal using modulation
� Baseband signal is the input data signal
� Carrier signal has frequency {carrier
� Modulated signal is output
 Encoding and Modulation Techniques
ITS323/CSS331

Signal Encoding

Introduction

Digital Data,
Digital Signals

Digital Data,
Analog Signals

Analog Data,
Digital Signals

Analog Data,
Analog Signals
 Reasons for Using Different Techniques
ITS323/CSS331

Signal Encoding

Digital data, digital signal: Equipment less complex/expensive

Introduction
than digital-to-analog modulation equipment
Digital Data,
Digital Signals
Analog data, digital signal: Permits use of digital transmission
Digital Data,
Analog Signals
equipment
Analog Data, Digital data, analog signal: Some media only propagate analog
Digital Signals
signals, e.g. optical fibre, wireless
Analog Data,
Analog Signals
Analog data, analog signal: Some analog data can easily be
transmitted as baseband signals, e.g. voice; enables multiple
signals at different positions in spectrum to share transmission
media
 Contents
ITS323/CSS331

Signal Encoding

Introduction

Digital Data,
Digital Signals
Introduction
Digital Data,
Analog Signals

Analog Data, Digital Data, Digital Signals

Digital Signals

Analog Data,
Analog Signals

Digital Data, Analog Signals

Analog Data, Digital Signals

Analog Data, Analog Signals

 ITS323/CSS331
Digital Data, Digital Signals
Signal Encoding
I Digital signal: sequence of discrete voltage pulses
Introduction

Digital Data,
I Each pulse is a signal element
Digital Signals
I Binary data transmitted by encoding each bit (data
Digital Data,
Analog Signals element) into signal elements
Analog Data, � E.g. binary 1 represented by lower voltage level, binary 0
Digital Signals
for higher level
Analog Data,
Analog Signals I Data rate = data elements or bits per second
I Signaling or modulation rate = signal elements per
second (baud)
 Receiver Interpreting Incoming Signal
ITS323/CSS331

Signal Encoding

Introduction

Digital Data,
Digital Signals

Digital Data,
Analog Signals

Analog Data,
Digital Signals

Analog Data,
Analog Signals

I Important factors for successful reception: SNR, data

rate, bandwidth
� Increase in data rate increases bit error rate (BER)
� Increase in SNR decreases BER
� Increase in bandwidth allows increase in data rate
I
 4.4.1 Line Coding

 Line coding is the process of converting digital data to

digital signals.
 We assume that data, in the form of text, numbers,
graphical images, audio, or video, are stored in computer
memory as sequences of bits (see Chapter 1).
 Line coding converts a sequence of bits to a digital signal.
 At the sender, digital data are encoded into a digital
signal; at the receiver, the digital data are recreated by
decoding the digital signal. Figure 4.1 shows the process.

4.12
 Line Coding
 Process of converting binary data to
digital signal

13
 Signal Levels vs. Data
Levels
 Number of signal levels
 Number of different voltage levels allowed in a signal
 Number of data levels
 Number of voltage levels that actually represent data
values

14
4.15
 Signal vs. Data Elements

16
4.17
 Pulse Rate vs. Bit Rate
0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0
+
3 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0
+
1

-1 t
-3

One pulse
(one signal element)

BitRate
BitRate == PulseRate
PulseRate ×× bb == PulseRate
PulseRate ×× log
log22LL
b – number of bits per pulse
L – number of different signal elements

Bit rate 
Bit rate  Bits
Bits per
per second
second
Pulse rate 
Pulse rate  Baud
Baud (pulses
(pulses or
or signals
signals per
per second
second
18
 Pulse Rate vs. Bit Rate
 Example: In Manchester Encoding, if the bit rate
is
10 Mbps, what is the pulse rate?
0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1

One bit One pulse

(one signal element)

19
4.20
 Encoding Considerations for
choosing a good signal Element
 Baseline wandering
 Signal spectrum
 Lack of DC components
 Lack of high frequency components
 Clocking/synchronization
 Built in Error detection
 Noise immunity
 Cost and complexity
21
Example 4.3
In a digital transmission, the receiver clock is 0.1 percent
faster than the sender clock. How many extra bits per second
does the receiver receive if the data rate is 1 kbps? How
many if the data rate is 1 Mbps?
Solution
At 1 kbps, the receiver receives 1001 bps instead of 1000
bps.

At 1 Mbps, the receiver receives 1,001,000 bps instead of

1,000,000 bps.

4.22
 Figure 4.3: Effect of lack of synchronization

4.23
 DC Components
 DC components in signals are not
desirable
 Cannot pass thru certain devices
 Leave0 extra
1 0(useless)
0 1 1 energy
0 1 on the line
Signal with
DC
t component

0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1

Signal without
t
DC component
24
 Synchronization
 To correctly decode a signal, receiver
and sender must agree on bit
interval
0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1
Sender sends:
01001101
t

0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1
Receiver sees:
0100011011
t

25
 Providing Synchronization
 Separate clock wire
Sender
data Receiver

clock

 Self-synchronization
0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1

26
4.27
 Line Coding Methods
 Unipolar

Uses only one voltage level (one side of time axis)
 Polar

Uses two voltage levels (negative and positive)
 E.g., NRZ, RZ, Manchester, Differential Manchester
 Bipolar
 Uses three voltage levels (+, 0, and –) for data
bits
 Multilevel

28
 Unipolar
 Simplest form of digital encoding
Rarely used
 Only one polarity of voltage is used
 E.g., polarity assigned to 1
0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0

29
4.30
 Polar Encoding
 Two voltage levels (+,-) represent data
bits
 Most popular four
 Nonreturn-to-Zero (NRZ)
 Return-to-Zero (RZ)
 Manchester
 Differential Manchester

31
 NRZ Encoding
 Nonreturn to Zero
 NRZ-L (NRZ-Level):
Signal level depends on bit value

0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0

 NRZ-I (NRZ-Invert): Signal is inverted if 1 is

encountered
0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0
N = Bit rate
Save = Average
t
signal rate
32
 4.4.2 Line Coding Schemes

We can roughly divide line coding schemes into five

broad categories, as shown in Figure 4.4.
There are several schemes in each category. We
need to be familiar with all schemes discussed in this
section to understand the rest of the book. This
section can be used as a reference for schemes
encountered later.

4.33
 Figure 4.4: Line coding scheme

4.34
 Figure 4.5: Unipolar NRZ scheme

4.35
 Figure 4.6: Polar schemes (NRZ-L and NRZ-I)

4.36
Example 4.4
A system is using NRZ-I to transfer 10-Mbps data. What are
the average signal rate and minimum bandwidth?

Solution
The average signal rate is S = N/2 = 500 kbaud. The
minimum bandwidth for this average baud rate is
Bmin = S = 500 kHz.

4.37
 Figure 4.7: Polar schemes (RZ)

4.38
 Figure 4.8: Polar biphase

4.39
4.40
 Manchester Encoding
 Uses an inversion at the middle of
each bit
 For bit representation
 For0 synchronization
1 0 0 1 1 0 1
=0
t
=1

41
 Differential Manchester
Encoding
 The inversion on the middle of each
bit is only for synchronization
 Transition at the beginning of each
bit tells the value
0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1

42
 Bipolar Encoding
 Bipolar encoding uses three voltage levels:
+, - and 0
 Each of all three levels represents a bit
 E.g., Bipolar AMI (Alternate Mark Inversion)
 0V always represents binary 0
 Binary 1s are represented by alternating + and
- 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1

43
 Figure 4.9: Bipolar schemes: AMI and pseudoternary

4.44
4.45
 Definition of Digital Signal Encoding Formats
ITS323/CSS331

Signal Encoding

Introduction

Digital Data,
Digital Signals

Digital Data,
Analog Signals

Analog Data,
Digital Signals

Analog Data,
Analog Signals
 Digital Signal Encoding Formats
ITS323/CSS331

Signal Encoding

Introduction

Digital Data,
Digital Signals

Digital Data,
Analog Signals

Analog Data,
Digital Signals

Analog Data,
Analog Signals
BnZS Schemes
 BnZS – Bipolar n-zero substitution
 Based on Bipolar AMI
 n consecutive zeros are substituted with some +/- levels

provides synchronization during long sequence of 0s
 E.g., B8ZS
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0

Bipolar
AMI
t
0 0 0 V B 0 V B

B8ZS

t
V – Bipolar violation
B – Valid bipolar signal
4.49
mBnL Schemes
 m data elements are substituted with n signal
elements
Bit sequence Voltage level

+
2B1Q
0 1 (two
0 1 0binary,
1 1 0 1 quaternary)
00 -3
3
0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0
+
1 01 -1
t 10 +3
-1
-3 11 +1

 8B6T (eight binary, six ternary)

4.51
 Figure 4.10: Multilevel: 2B1Q

4.52
 Figure 4.11: Multilevel: 8B6T

4.53
 Figure 4.12: Multilevel: 4D-PAM5 scheme

4.54
 Figure 4.13: Multi-transition MLT-3 scheme

4.55
 Table 4.1: Summary of line coding schemes

4.56
 4.4.3 Block Coding

We need redundancy to ensure

synchronization and to provide
some kind of inherent error
detecting. Block coding can give
us this redundancy and improve
the performance of line coding.
In general, block coding changes
a block of m bits into a block of n
bits, where n is larger than m.
Block coding is referred to as an
mB/nB encoding technique.

4.57
 Figure 4.14: Block coding concept

4.58
 Figure 4.15: Using block coding 4B/5B with NRZ-I line
coding scheme

4.59
 Table 4.2: 4B/5B mapping codes

4.60
Example 4.5
We need to send data at a 1-Mbps rate. What is the
minimum required bandwidth, using a combination of
4B/5B and NRZ-I or Manchester coding?

Solution
First 4B/5B block coding increases the bit rate to 4.25
Mbps. The minimum bandwidth using NRZ-I is N/2 or 625
kHz. The Manchester scheme needs a minimum bandwidth
of 1 MHz. The first choice needs a lower bandwidth, but has
a DC component problem; the second choice needs a higher
bandwidth, but does not have a DC component problem.

4.61
 Figure 4.16: Substitution in 4B/5B block coding

4.62
 Figure 4.17: 8B/10B block encoding

4.63
 4.4.4 Scrambling

We modify line and block coding to include

scrambling, as shown in Figure 4.18. Note that
scrambling, as opposed to block coding, is done at
the same time as encoding. The system needs to
insert the required pulses based on the defined
scrambling rules. Two common scrambling
techniques are B8ZS and HDB3.

4.64
 Figure 4.18: AMI used with scrambling

4.65
 Figure 4.19: Two cases of B8ZS scrambling technique

4.66
 Figure 4.20: Different situations in HDB3 scrambling
technique

4.67
 4-2 ANALOG-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION

The techniques described in Section 4.1 convert

digital data to digital signals. Sometimes, however,
we have an analog signal such as one created by a
microphone or camera. We have seen in Chapter 3
that a digital signal is superior to an analog signal.
The tendency today is to change an analog signal
to digital data. In this section we describe two
techniques, pulse code modulation and delta
modulation.
4.68
 4.2.1 Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)

The most common technique to change an analog

signal to digital data (digitization) is called pulse
code modulation (PCM). A PCM encoder has three
processes, as shown in Figure 4.24.

4.69
4.70
 Figure 4.21: Components of PCM encoder

4.71
4.72
 Figure 4.22: Three different sampling methods for PCM

4.73
4.74
Example 4.6
For an intuitive example of the Nyquist theorem, let us
sample a simple sine wave at three sampling rates: f s = 4f (2
times the Nyquist rate), fs = 2f (Nyquist rate), and fs = f
(one-half the Nyquist rate). Figure 4.24 shows the sampling
and the subsequent recovery of the signal. It can be seen that
sampling at the Nyquist rate can create a good
approximation of the original sine wave (part a).
Oversampling in part b can also create the same
approximation, but it is redundant and unnecessary.
Sampling below the Nyquist rate (part c) does not produce a
signal that looks like the original sine wave.

4.75
Example 4.7
The frequency domain is more compact and useful when we
are dealing with more than one sine wave. For example,
Figure 3.9 shows three sine waves, each with different
amplitude and frequency. All can be represented by three
spikes in the frequency domain.

4.76
 Figure 4.23: Nyquist sampling rate for low-pass and
bandpass signals

4.77
 Figure 4.24: Recovery of a sine wave with different
sampling rates.

4.78
Example 4.9
Telephone companies digitize voice by assuming a
maximum frequency of 4000 Hz. The sampling rate
therefore is 8000 samples per second.

4.79
Example 4.10
A complex low-pass signal has a bandwidth of 200 kHz.
What is the minimum sampling rate for this signal?

Solution
The bandwidth of a low-pass signal is between 0 and f,
where f is the maximum frequency in the signal. Therefore,
we can sample this signal at 2 times the highest frequency
(200 kHz). The sampling rate is therefore 400,000 samples
per second.

4.80
Example 4.11
A complex bandpass signal has a bandwidth of 200 kHz.
What is the minimum sampling rate for this signal?

Solution
We cannot find the minimum sampling rate in this case
because we do not know where the bandwidth starts or ends.
We do not know the maximum frequency in the signal.

4.81
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4.84
4.85
4.86
4.87
4.88
4.89
4.90
4.91
4.92
4.93
4.94
4.95
4.96
4.97
 Quantization Error
 Assume sine-wave input and uniform
quantization

 nb is the number of bits per sample

 Known as the 6 dB/bit approximation

o: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantization_error#Quantization_noise_model
Example: Quantization Error
 A telephone subscriber line must
have an SNRdB above 40. What is the
Solution
minimum
We can calculatenumber ofbitsbits
the number of as per sample?

Telephone companies usually assign 7 or 8 bits per sample.

PCM: The Whole Process
 Figure 4.26: Quantization and encoding of a sampled
signal

4.101
Example 4.12
What is the SNRdB in the example of Figure 4.26?

Solution
We can use the formula to find the quantization. We have
eight levels and 3 bits per sample, so
SNRdB = 6.02(3) + 4.76 = 19.82 dB. Increasing the number
of levels increases the SNR.

4.102
Example 4.13
A telephone subscriber line must have an SNR dB above 40.
What is the minimum number of bits per sample?

Solution
We can calculate the number of bits as

Telephone companies usually assign 7 or 8 bits per sample.

4.103
Example 4.14
We want to digitize the human voice. What is the bit rate,
assuming 8 bits per sample?

Solution
The human voice normally contains frequencies from 0 to
4000 Hz. So the sampling rate and bit rate are calculated as
follows:

4.104
 Figure 4.27: Components of a PCM decoder

4.105
Example 4.15
We have a low-pass analog signal of 4 kHz. If we send the
analog signal, we need a channel with a minimum
bandwidth of 4 kHz. If we digitize the signal and send 8 bits
per sample, we need a channel with a minimum bandwidth
of 8 × 4 kHz = 32 kHz.

4.106
 4.2.2 Delta Modulation (DM)

PCM is a very complex technique. Other techniques

have been developed to reduce the complexity of
PCM. The simplest is delta modulation. PCM finds
the value of the signal amplitude for each sample;
DM finds the change from the previous sample.
Figure 4.28 shows the process. Note that there are
no code words here; bits are sent one after another.

4.107
 Figure 4.28: The process of delta modulation

4.108
 Figure 4.29: Delta modulation components

4.109
4.110
 4-3 TRANSMISSION MODES

Of primary concern when we are considering the

transmission of data from one device to another is
the wiring, and of primary concern when we are
considering the wiring is the data stream. Do we
send 1 bit at a time; or do we group bits into larger
groups and, if so, how? The transmission of binary
data across a link can be accomplished in either
parallel or serial mode. and isochronous (see
Figure 4.31).
4.111
 Figure 4.31: Data transmission modes

4.112
 4.3.1 Parallel Transmission

Line coding is the process of converting digital data

to digital signals. We assume that data, in the form
of text, numbers, graphical images, audio, or video,
are stored in computer memory as sequences of bits
(see Chapter 1). Line coding converts a sequence of
bits to a digital signal. At the sender, digital data are
encoded into a digital signal; at the receiver, the
digital data are recreated by decoding the digital
signal. Figure 4.1 shows the process.

4.113
 Figure 4.32: Parallel transmission

4.114
 4.3.2 Serial Transmission

In serial transmission one bit follows another, so we

need only one communication channel rather than n
to transmit data between two communicating devices
(see Figure 4.33)..

4.115
 Figure 4.33: Serial transmission

4.116
 Figure 4.34: Asynchronous transmission

4.117
 Figure 4.35: Synchronous transmission

Direction of flow
Frame Frame Frame

11 1 1 0 11 1 11 1 1 1 0 11 11 1 1 0 11 0 • • •11 1 1 0 11 1 11 1 1 0 0 11

4.118