UNIT-2 RELATIONAL MODEL

Unit 2: SQL – Data definition- Queries in SQL- Updates- Views – Integrity and
Security – Relational Database design – Functional dependencies and
Normalization for Relational Databases (up to BCNF).

Practical Experiments / Experiential Learning:

● Ex 2: DDL, DML, and DCL commands in RDBMS.
● Ex 3: Normalization and Implementation of Joins and Views.
● Ex 4: High-level language extension with Cursors and Triggers.

1
What is SQL?
• SQL stands for Structured Query Language. It is
used for storing and managing data in
Relational Database Management System
(RDBMS).
• It is a standard language for Relational Database
System. It enables a user to create, read, update
and delete relational databases and tables.
• All the RDBMS like MySQL, Informix, Oracle,
MS Access and SQL Server use SQL as their
standard database language.
• SQL allows users to query the database in a
number of ways, using English-like
What is Advantages of SQL?
• High speed
• No coding needed
• Well defined standards
• Portability
• Interactive language
• Multiple data view
SQL Commands
• SQL commands are instructions. It is used to
communicate with the database. It is also used to
perform specific tasks, functions, and queries of data.

• SQL can perform various tasks like create a table, add

data to tables, drop the table, modify the table, set
permission for users.
● These SQL commands are mainly categorized into five
categories:

● DDL – Data Definition Language

● DQL – Data Query Language
● DML – Data Manipulation Language
● DCL – Data Control Language
● TCL – Transaction Control Language
Types of SQL Commands
• There are five types of SQL commands:
DDL, DML, DCL, TCL, and DQL.
Data Definition Language (DDL)

• DDL changes the structure of the table like creating a

table, deleting a table, altering a table, etc.
• All the command of DDL are auto-committed that
means it permanently save all the changes in the
database.
• Here are some commands that come under DDL:
⮚ CREATE
⮚ ALTER
⮚ DROP
⮚ TRUNCATE
Data Definition Language (DDL)- CREATE
CREATE It is used to create a new table in the database.

Syntax:
CREATE TABLE TABLE_NAME (COLUMN_NAME
DATATYPES[,....]);

Example:
CREATE TABLE EMPLOYEE(Name VARCHAR2(20), Email
VARCHAR(100), DOB DATE);
SQL Constraints
The following constraints are commonly used in SQL:
● NOT NULL - Ensures that a column cannot have a NULL
value
● UNIQUE - Ensures that all values in a column are different
● PRIMARY KEY - A combination of a NOT NULL and
UNIQUE. Uniquely identifies each row in a table
● FOREIGN KEY - Prevents actions that would destroy links
between tables
● CHECK - Ensures that the values in a column satisfies a
specific condition
● DEFAULT - Sets a default value for a column if no value is
specified
● CREATE INDEX - Used to create and retrieve data from the
database very quickly
Data Definition Language (DDL)- Drop
Drop: It is used to delete both the structure and record
stored in the table.

Syntax:
DROP TABLE ;

Example:
DROP TABLE EMPLOYEE;
Data Definition Language (DDL)- ALTER
ALTER: It is used to alter the structure of the database. This
change could be either to modify the characteristics of an existing
attribute or probably to add a new attribute.

Syntax:
ALTER TABLE table_name ADD column_name COLUMN-

definition; ALTER TABLE MODIFY(COLUMN

DEFINITION....);

Example:
ALTER TABLE STU_DETAILS ADD(ADDRESS
VARCHAR2(20)); ALTER TABLE STU_DETAILS
MODIFY (NAME VARCHAR2(20));
Data Definition Language (DDL)- TRUNCATE
TRUNCATE: It is used to delete all the rows from the table and
free the space containing the table.

Syntax:
TRUNCATE TABLE table_name;

Example:
TRUNCATE TABLE EMPLOYEE;
Data Manipulation Language
• DML commands are used to modify the database. It is
responsible for all form of CHANGES in the
database.

• The command of DML is not auto-committed that

means it can't permanently save all the changes in the
database. They can be rollback.

Here are some commands that come under DML:

⮚ INSERT
⮚ UPDATE
⮚ DELETE
Data Manipulation Language - INSERT
INSERT: The INSERT statement is a SQL query. It is used to
insert data into the row of a table.
Syntax:
INSERT INTO TABLE_NAME (col1, col2, col3,....
col N)
VALUES (value1, value2, value3, .... valueN);

OR
INSERT INTO TABLE_NAME VALUES (value1, value2, value3, ....
valueN);

Example:
INSERT INTO XYZ (Author, Subject) VALUES ("Sonoo",
"DBMS");
Data Manipulation Language - UPDATE
Update: This command is used to update or modify the value of a
column in the table.
Syntax:
UPDATE table_name SET [column_name1= value1,...column_n
ameN = valueN] [WHERE CONDITION]

Example:
UPDATE students
SET User_Name = 'Sonoo'
WHERE Student_Id = '3'
Data Control Language
DCL commands are used to GRANT and TAKE
BACK authority from any database user.

Here are some commands that come under DCL:

⮚Grant

⮚Revoke
Data Control Language - Grant
GRANT: It is used to give user access privileges to a database.

Example:
GRANT SELECT, UPDATE ON MY_TABLE TO
SOME_USER, ANOT HER_USER;

REVOKE: It is used to take back permissions from the user.

Example:

REVOKE SELECT, UPDATE ON MY_TABLE FROM

USER1, USER2;
Transaction Control Language
TCL commands can only use with DML commands
like INSERT, DELETE and UPDATE only.
These operations are automatically committed in the
database that's why they cannot be used while creating
tables or dropping them.
Here are some commands that come under TCL:
⮚ COMMIT
⮚ ROLLBACK
⮚ SAVEPOINT
Transaction Control Language -
COMMIT
Commit: Commit command is used to save all the transactions
to the database.
Syntex:
COMMIT;
Example:
DELETE FROM
CUSTOMERS WHERE
AGE = 25; COMMIT;
Transaction Control Language - Rollback
Rollback: Rollback command is SAVEPOINT: It is used to roll
used to undo transactions that the transaction back to a certain
have not already been saved to point without rolling back the
the database. entire transaction.
Syntex:
Syntex:
ROLLBACK;
SAVEPOINT
SAVEPOINT_NA ME;
Example:

DELETE FROM
CUSTOMERS WHERE
AGE = 25; ROLLBACK;
Data Query Language
DQL is used to fetch the data from the database.
It uses only one command:
SELECT
a. SELECT: This is the same as the projection operation of
relational algebra. It is used to select the attribute based on
the condition described by WHERE clause.

Syntax:
SELECT FROM TABLES WHERE
expressions conditions;
Example:
SELECT emp_name FROM employee WHERE
age > 20;
SQL Operator
SQL Comparison Operators:

Operator Description
+ It adds the value of both operands.

- It is used to subtract the right-hand operand from the left-hand

operand.

* It is used to multiply the value of both operands.

/ It is used to divide the left-hand operand by the right-hand

operand.

% It is used to divide the left-hand operand by the right-hand

operand and returns reminder.
SQL Arithmetic Operators
Operator Description

= It checks if two operands values are equal or not, if the values are
queal then condition becomes true.

!= It checks if two operands values are equal or not, if values are not
equal, then condition becomes true.

<> It checks if two operands values are equal or not, if values are not
equal then condition becomes true.

It checks if the left operand value is greater than right operand value,
> if yes then condition becomes true.

It checks if the left operand value is less than right operand value, if
< yes then condition becomes true.

It checks if the left operand value is greater than or equal to the right
>= operand value, if yes then condition becomes true.
SQL Arithmetic Operators

Operator Description

<= It checks if the left operand value is less than or equal to the right
operand value, if yes then condition becomes true.

!< It checks if the left operand value is not less than the right operand
value, if yes then condition becomes true.

!> It checks if the left operand value is not greater than the right operand
value, if yes then condition becomes true.
SQL Arithmetic Operators

SELECT order_id, item, amount, amount + 100

AS "amount + 100" FROM Orders;
SELECT order_id, item , amount, amount - 100
FROM Orders;
SELECT order_id, item , amount, amount /100
FROM Orders;
SELECT order_id, item , amount, amount *100
FROM Orders;
SELECT order_id, item , amount, amount %100
SQL Arithmetic Operators

SELECT * FROM Orders WHERE amount = 400;

SELECT * FROM Orders WHERE item !=
'Keyboard';
SELECT * FROM Orders WHERE amount > 1000;
SELECT * FROM Orders WHERE amount < 300;
SELECT * FROM Orders WHERE amount >= 500;
SELECT * FROM Orders WHERE amount <= 750;
SELECT * FROM Orders WHERE amount <= 500;
 SQL Logical Operators
Operator Description
All It compares a value to all values in another value set.

AND It allows the existence of multiple conditions in an SQL statement.

ANY It compares the values in the list according to the condition.

Between It is used to search for values that are within a set of values.

SELECT *
IN
FROM Customers
It compares a value to that specified list value.
WHERE country = 'USA' AND first_name='John';
NOT It reverses the meaning of any logical operator.
SELECT *
OR
FROM Customers
It combines multiple conditions in SQL statements.
WHERE country = 'USA' orused
first_name='John';
EXIST It is to search for the presence of a row in a specified table.

SELECT *
LIKE
FROM Customers
It compares a value to similar values using wildcard operator.

WHERE not country = 'USA';

SELECT * FROM Customers
WHERE age not BETWEEN 25 AND 31;

SELECT * FROM Orders

WHERE amount >(SELECT amount FROM Orders WHERE item = 'Keyboard');

SELECT * FROM Orders

WHERE amount > all (SELECT amount FROM Orders WHERE item = 'Keyboard');

SELECT * FROM Orders

WHERE amount > any (SELECT amount FROM Orders WHERE item =
'Keyboard');
Views in SQL
• Views in SQL are considered as a virtual table. A
view also contains rows and columns.

• To create the view, we can select the fields from one

or more tables present in the database.

• A view can either have specific rows based on certain

condition or all the rows of a table.
Creating view
A view can be created using the CREATE VIEW statement. We
can create a view from a single table or multiple tables.
Syntax
CREATE VIEW view_name
AS SELECT column1,
column2..... FROM
table_name
WHERE condition;
Creating View from a single table
CREATE VIEW
DetailsView AS SELECT
NAME, ADDRESS
FROM
Student_Details
WHERE STU_ID < 4;
Creating View from multiple tables
View from multiple tables can be created by simply
include multiple tables in the SELECT statement.
In the given example, a view is created named MarksView
from two tables Student_Detail and Student_Marks.

CREATE VIEW MarksView AS

SELECT Student_Detail.NAME, Student_Detail.ADDRESS,
Student_Marks.MARKS FROM Student_Detail, Student_Mark
WHERE Student_Detail.NAME = Student_Marks.NAME;

SELECT * FROM
MarksView; DROP VIEW
view_name;
CREATE VIEW mutiple AS

SELECT Customers.customer_id, Customers.first_name,

Orders.order_id FROM Customers, Orders WHERE
Customers.customer_id = Orders.order_id ;

SELECT * FROM mutiple;

SQL Sub Query
A Subquery is a query within another SQL query and embedded
within the WHERE clause.
Important Rule:
• A subquery can be placed in a number of SQL clauses like WHERE
clause, FROM clause, HAVING clause.
• You can use Subquery with SELECT, UPDATE, INSERT, DELETE
statements along with the operators like =, <, >, >=, <=, IN,
BETWEEN, etc.
• A subquery is a query within another query. The outer query is known as
the main query, and the inner query is known as a subquery.
• Subqueries are on the right side of the comparison operator.
• A subquery is enclosed in parentheses.
• In the Subquery, ORDER BY command cannot be used. But GROUP
BY command can be used to perform the same function as ORDER
BY command.
Subqueries with the Select Statement
SQL subqueries are most frequently used with the Select statement.
Syntax:
SELECT
column_name
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name expression operator
( SELECT column_name from table_name WHERE ... );

Example:
SELECT * FROM Customers WHERE customer_id IN (SELECT
customer_id FROM Customers WHERE age > 28);
 Subqueries with the INSERT Statement

• SQL subquery can also be used with the Insert statement. In the insert
statement, data returned from the subquery is used to insert into another
table.
• In the subquery, the selected data can be modified with any of the
character, date functions.
Syntax:
INSERT INTO table_name (column1, column2, column3....)
SELECT * FROM table_name WHERE VALUE OPERATOR

Example:
INSERT INTO
EMPLOYEE_BKP
SELECT * FROM
EMPLOYEE WHERE ID
IN (SELECT ID FROM
EMPLOYEE);
SQL Clauses

○ SQL clause helps us to retrieve a set or bundles of records from the

table.
○ SQL clause helps us to specify a condition on the columns or the
records of a table.
GROUP BY
• SQL GROUP BY statement is used to arrange identical data into
groups.
• The GROUP BY statement is used with the SQL SELECT
statement.
• The GROUP BY statement follows the WHERE clause in a
SELECT statement and precedes the ORDER BY clause.
• The GROUP BY statement is used with aggregation function.
Syntax
SELECT column
FROM Example
table_name SELECT first_name,
WHERE COUNT(*) FROM
conditions Customers
GROUP BY GROUP BY first_name;
column ORDER
BY column
HAVING
• HAVING clause is used to specify a search condition for a
group or an aggregate.
• Having is used in a GROUP BY clause. If you are not
using GROUP BY clause then you can use HAVING
function like a WHERE clause
Syntax
Example
SELECT column1, column2
SELECT first_name,
FRO M table_name
COUNT(*) FROM
WHERE conditions
Customers
GROUP BY column1,
GROUP BY first_name
column2 HAVING
HAVING COUNT(*)>1;
conditions
ORDER BY column1,
column2;
ORDER BY
• The ORDER BY clause sorts the result-set in ascending
or descending order.
• It sorts the records in ascending order by default. DESC
keyword is used to sort the records in descending order.

Example
Syntax SELECT *
SELECT column1,
column2 FROM FROM Customers
table_name WHERE ORDER BY
condition first_name;
ORDER BY column1, column2... OR
AS C|DESC; SELECT *
FROM Customers
ORDER BY
first_name desc;
SQL Aggregate Functions
COUNT FUNCTION
• COUNT function is used to Count the number of rows in a database
table. It can work on both numeric and non-numeric data types.
• COUNT function uses the COUNT(*) that returns the count of all
the rows in a specified table. COUNT(*) considers duplicate and
Null.
Syntax
COUNT(*) or COUNT( [ALL|DISTINCT] expression )
Example
⮚ SELECT COUNT(*) FROM PRODUCT_MAST;
⮚ SELECT COUNT(*) FROM PRODUCT_MAST WHERE RATE>=20;
⮚ SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT COMPANY) FROM PRODUCT_MAST;
SUM FUNCTION
• Sum function is used to calculate the sum of all selected
columns. It works on numeric fields only.
Syntax
SUM() or SUM( [ALL|DISTINCT] expression )
Example
SELECT SUM(COST) FROM PRODUCT_MAST;
SUM() with WHERE
SELECT SUM(COST) FROM PRODUCT_MAST WHERE QTY>3;
AVG FUNCTION
• The AVG function is used to calculate the average value of the
numeric type. AVG function returns the average of all non-
Null values.

Syntax
AVG() or AVG( [ALL|DISTINCT] expression )
Example
SELECT FROM
AVG(COST) PRODUCT_MAST;
MAX FUNCTION
• MAX function is used to find the maximum value of a certain column.
This function determines the largest value of all selected values of a
column.
Syntax
MAX() or MAX( [ALL|DISTINCT] expression )
Example
SELECT MAX(RATE) FROM PRODUCT_MAST;

MIN FUNCTION
• MIN function is used to find the minimum value of a certain column.
This function determines the smallest value of all selected values of a
column
SELECT
Syntax MIN(RATE)
MIN() or MIN( [ALL|DISTINCT] FROM
expression ) PRODUCT_MAST;
SQL JOIN
SQL, JOIN means "to combine two or more tables". In SQL, JOIN clause is used
to combine the records from two or more tables in a database.

Types of SQL JOIN

⮚ INNER JOIN

⮚ LEFT JOIN

⮚ RIGHT JOIN

⮚ FULL JOIN
INNER JOIN
In SQL, INNER JOIN selects records that have matching values in both tables as
long as the condition is satisfied. It returns the combination of all rows from both
the tables where the condition satisfies.
Syntax
SELECT table1.column1, table1.column2,
table2.column1,.... FROM table1
INNER JOIN table2
ON table1.matching_column = table2.matching_column;

Example

SELECT Customers.country, Orders.item FROM Customers

INNER JOIN Orders
ON Customers.customer_id= Orders.order_id ;
LEFT JOIN
The SQL left join returns all the values from left table and the matching
values from the right table. If there is no matching join value, it will return
NULL.
Syntax
SELECT table1.column1, table1.column2,
table2.column1,.... FROM table1
LEFT JOIN table2
ON table1.matching_column = table2.matching_column;

Example
SELECT Customers.country, Orders.item FROM Customers
left JOIN Orders
ON Customers.customer_id= Orders.customer_id ;
RIGHT JOIN
In SQL, RIGHT JOIN returns all the values from the values from the rows of
right table and the matched values from the left table. If there is no matching in
both tables, it will return NULL.
Syntax
SELECT table1.column1, table1.column2,
table2.column1,.... FROM table1
RIGHT JOIN table2
ON table1.matching_column = table2.matching_column;

Example
SELECT Customers.country, Orders.item FROM Customers
right JOIN Orders
ON Customers.customer_id= Orders.customer_id ;
FULL JOIN
In SQL, FULL JOIN is the result of a combination of both left and right outer
join. Join tables have all the records from both tables. It puts NULL on the
place of matches not found.
Syntax
SELECT table1.column1, table1.column2,
table2.column1,.... FROM table1
FULL JOIN table2
ON table1.matching_column = table2.matching_column;

Example
SELECT EMPLOYEE.EMP_NAME,
PROJECT.DEPARTMENT FROM EMPLOYEE
FULL JOIN PROJECT
ON PROJECT.EMP_ID = EMPLOYEE.EMP_ID;
SQL Set Operation

The SQL Set operation is used to combine the two or

more SQL SELECT statements

Types of Set Operation

Union
UnionAll
Intersect
Minus
Union Operation
• The SQL Union operation is used to combine the result of two or more
SQL SELECT queries.
• In the union operation, all the number of datatype and columns must be
same in both the tables on which UNION operation is being applied.
• The union operation eliminates the duplicate rows from its resultset.

Syntax
SELECT column_name FROM
table1 UNION
SELECT column_name FROM table2;
Example

SELECT * FROM
First UNION
SELECT * FROM Second;
Intersect Operation
• It is used to combine two SELECT statements. The Intersect operation
returns the common rows from both the SELECT statements.
• In the Intersect operation, the number of datatype and columns must be the
same.
• It has no duplicates and it arranges the data in ascending order by default.

Syntax
SELECT column_name FROM
table1 INTERSECT
SELECT column_name FROM table2;
Example

SELECT * FROM
First INTERSECT
SELECT * FROM Second;
MINUS Operation
• It combines the result of two SELECT statements. Minus operator is used to
display the rows which are present in the first query but absent in the second
query.
• It has no duplicates and data arranged in ascending order by default.

Syntax
SELECT column_name FROM
table1 MINUS
SELECT column_name FROM table2;
Example

SELECT * FROM
First MINUS
SELECT * FROM Second;