OCE 552 -

Geographic
Information
System UNIT - IV
Vector Data Analysis
 Vector data analysis uses the geometric objects of
point, line,
and polygon.
 The
accuracy of analysis results depends on the
accuracy of these objects in terms of location and
shape.
 Topology can also be a factor for some vector data
analyses
such asBuffering
buffering and overlay.
 Based on the concept of proximity, buffering
creates
two
of areas: one area
selectfeatures andthat
theisother
within a that
area specified
is
distance
beyond.
The area that is within the specified distance is
called the buffer zone.
There are several variations in buffering. The
buffer distance can vary according to the
values of a given field. Buffering around line
features can be on either the left side or the
right side of the line feature. Boundaries of 2
Figure 11.1
Buffering around lines, and
points, areas.

Figure 11.2
Buffering with buffe distance
different r s.

3
 Figure 11.3
Buffering with four rings.

Figure 11.4
Buffer zones dissolve
(top) or dissolved not d
(bottom).

4
 Overlay
 An overlay operation combines the
geometries and attributes of two feature
layers to create the output.
 The geometry of the output represents the
geometric intersection of features from
the input layers.
 Each feature on the output contains a
combination of attributes from the input
layers,
and this combination differs from its
neighbors.

Figure 11.5
Overlay combines the geometry and attribute data from two layers into a
single layer. The dashed lines are not included in the output.

5
 Feature Type and Overlay

Overlay operations can be classified by feature

type into point-in-polygon, line-in-polygon, and
polygon-on- polygon.

Figure 11.6
Point-in-polygon overlay. The input is a point layer (the dashed
lines
are for illustration only and are not part of the point layer).
The output
is also a point layer but has attribute data from the polygon
layer.
6
Figure 11.7
Line-in-polygon overlay. The input is a line layer (the dashed lines are for
illustration only and are not part of the line layer). The output is also a line
layer. But the output differs from the input in two aspects: the line is
broken into two segments, and the line segments have attribute data from
the polygon layer.

Figure 11.8
Polygon-on-polygon overlay. In the illustration, the two layers for
overlay have the same area extent. The output combines the
geometry and attribute data from the two layers into a single
polygon layer.

7
 Overlay Methods
 All
overlay methods are based on the Boolean connectors of AND, OR,
and XOR.
 An overlay operation is called Intersect if it uses the AND connector.
 An overlay operation is called Union if it uses the OR connector.
 An overlay operation that uses the XOR connector is called Symmetrical
Difference or Difference.
 Anoverlay operation is called Identity or Minus if it uses the following
expression: [(input layer) AND (identity layer)] OR (input layer).

Figure 11.9
The Union method keeps all areas of the two input layers in the output.

8
Figure 11.10
The Intersect method preserves only the area common to the two
input layers in the output. (The dashed lines are for illustration only;
they are not part of the output.)

Figure 11.11
The Symmetric Difference method preserves only the area common
to only one of the input layers in the output. (The dashed lines are
for illustration only; they are not part of the output.)

9
Figure 11.12
The Identity method produces an output that has the same extent as the
input layer. But the output includes the geometry and attribute data from
the identity layer.

Slivers
 A common error from overlaying polygon layers is
slivers, very small polygons along correlated or
shared boundary lines of the input layers.
 To remove slivers, ArcGIS uses the cluster
tolerance, which forces points and lines to be
snapped together if they fall within the specified
distance.

10
 Figure 11.13
The top boundary has a series of slivers. These slivers are
formed between the coastlines from the input layers in
overlay.

Figure 11.14
A cluster tolerance can remove many
sliver along the top boundary (A) ca
s
also snap lines that are not but n
slivers(B).
 Areal Interpolation
One common application of overlay is to help solve the areal
interpolation problem. Areal interpolation involves
transferring known data from one set of polygons (source
polygons) to another (target polygons).

Figure 11.15
An example of areal interpolation. Thick lines represent census tracts and
thin lines school districts. Census tract A has a known population of 4000
and B has 2000. The overlay result shows that the areal proportion of
census tract A in school district 1 is 1/8 and the areal proportion of census
tract B, 1/2. Therefore, the population in school district 1 can be estimated
to be 1500, or [(4000 x 1/8) + (2000 x 1/2)].

1
 Pattern
Analysis
Pattern analysis refers to the use of quantitative methods
for describing and analyzing the distribution pattern of
spatial features.
Atthe general level, a pattern analysis can reveal if a
distribution pattern is random, dispersed, or clustered.
 Atthe local level, a pattern analysis can detect if a
distribution
pattern contains local clusters of high or low values.
Pattern analysis includes point pattern analysis (nearest
neighbor, Ripley’s K-function), Moran’s I for measuring
spatial autocorrelation, and G-statistic for measuring
high/low clustering.

Figure 11.16
A point pattern deer
showing locations.
 Figure 11.18
A point pattern deer locations and number
sighting showing at each the of
s location.

Figure 11.19
Percent
population by Latino group in
block County, Idaho. Ada
is Boise in the upper
located of the map with center
small
sized block
groups.
 Feature Manipulation
 Tools are available in a GIS package for
manipulating and managing maps in a
database.
 These tools include Dissolve, Clip, Append,
Select, Eliminate, Update, Erase, and Split.

Figure 11.22
Dissolve removes boundaries of polygons that have
the same attribute value in (a) and creates a
simplified layer (b).
Figure 11.23
Clip creates an output that contains only those features of the input layer that fall within the
area extent of
the clip layer. (The dashed lines are for illustration only; they are not part of the clip layer.)

Figure 11.24
Append pieces together two adjacent layers into a single layer but does not remove the
shared boundary between the layers.
Figure 11.25
Select creates a new layer (b) with selected features from
the input layer (a).

Figure 11.26
Eliminate remove
some s
sliver small along the
s boundary top
(A).
Figure 11.27
Update replaces the input layer with the update layer and its features.
(The dashed lines are for illustration only; they are not part of the
update layer.)

Figure 11.28
Erase removes features from the input layer that fall within the area extent of the
erase layer. (The dashed lines are for illustration only; they are not part of the
erase layer.)
Figure 11.29
Split uses the geometry of the split layer to divide the input layer into
four separate layers.
CHAPTER 12 RASTER DATA
1. Data Analysis Environment
ANALYSIS
Box 12.1 How to Make an Analysis Mask
2. Local Operations
1. Local Operations with a Single Raster
2. Reclassification
3. Local Operations with Multiple Rasters
Box 12.2 Local Operations in ArcGIS
4. Applications of Local Operations
3. Neighborhood Operations
1. Neighborhood Statistics
Box 12.3 Neighborhood Operations in ArcGIS
2. Applications of Neighborhood Operations
Box 12.4 More Examples of Neighborhood
Operations
4. Zonal Operations
1. Zonal Statistics
Box 12.5 Zonal Operations in ArcGIS
2. Applications of Zonal Operations

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction

or display.
5. Physical Distance Measure Operations
1. Allocation and Direction
Box 12.5 Distance Measure Operations in ArcGIS
2. Applications of Physical Distance Measure
Operations
6. Other Raster Data Operations
1. Raster Data Management
2. Raster Data Extraction
3. Raster Data Generalization
Raster Data
Analysis 
Raster data analysis is based on cells and
rasters.
Raster data analysis can be performed at the
level of individual cells, or groups of cells, or cells
within an entire raster.
Some raster data operations use a single raster;
others use two or more rasters.
Raster data analysis also depends on the type
of cell value (numeric or categorical values).
Raster Analysis
Environment
The analysis environment refers to the
area for
analysis and the output cell size.
Local Operations: Single
Raster
Given a single raster as the input, a local operation
computes each cell value in the output raster as a
mathematical function of the cell value in the input
raster.
Figure 12.1
Arithmetic, logarithmic, trigonometric, and power
functions for
local operations.
Figure 12.2
A local operation can convert a slope raster from
percent (a) to
degrees (b).
Local Operations: Multiple
Rasters
A common term for local operations with multiple input
rasters is map algebra, a term that refers to algebraic
operations with raster map layers.
Besides mathematical functions that can be used on
individual rasters, other measures that are based on the
cell values or their frequencies in the input rasters can
also be derived and stored on the output raster of a local
operation with multiple rasters.
Figure 12.3
The cell value in (d) is the mean
calculated from three input
rasters (a, b, and c) in a local
operation. The shaded cells
have no data.
Figure 12.5
Each cell value in (c) represents a unique combination of cell
values in (a) and (b). The combination codes and their
representations are shown in (d).
Neighborhood
Operations
A neighborhood operation involves a focal cell and
a set of its surrounding cells. The surrounding cells
are chosen for their distance and/or directional
relationship to the focal cell.
Common neighborhoods include rectangles,
circles, annuluses, and wedges.
Figure 12.6
Four common
neighborhood
types: rectangle
(a), circle (b),
annulus (c), and
wedge (d). The
cell marked with
an x is the focal
cell.
Figure 12.7
The cell values in (b)
are the
neighborhood
means of the shaded
cells in (a) using a 3
x 3 neighborhood.
For example, 1.56 in
the output raster is
calculated from (1
+2 +2
+1 +2 +2 +1 +2
+1) / 9.
Figure 12.8
The cell values in (b)
are the
neighborhood range
statistics of the
shaded cells in (a)
using a 3 x 3
neighborhood. For
example, the upper-
left cell in the output
raster has a cell
value of 100, which
is calculated from
(200 – 100).
Figure 12.9
The cell values in (b)
are the
neighborhood
majority statistics of
the shaded cells in
(a) using a 3 x 3
neighborhood.
For example, the
upper- left cell in the
output raster has a
cell value of 2
because there are
five 2s and four 1s in
its neighborhood.
Zonal
Operations
A zonal operation works with groups of cells of same
values or like features. These groups are called zones.
Zones may be contiguous or noncontiguous.
A zonal operation may work with a single raster or
two rasters.
Given a single input raster, zonal operations
measure the geometry of each zone in the raster,
such as area, perimeter, thickness, and centroid.
Given two rasters in a zonal operation, one input
raster and one zonal raster, a zonal operation
produces an output raster, which summarizes the cell
values in the input raster for each zone in the zonal
raster.
Figure 12.10
Thickness and centroid for two large watersheds (zones). Area
is measured in square kilometers, and perimeter and
thickness are measured in kilometers. The centroid of each
zone is marked with an x.
Figure 12.11
The cell values in
(c) are the zonal
means derived
from an input
raster (a) and a
zonal raster (b).
For example, 2.17
is the mean of {1,
1, 2, 2, 4,
3} for zone 1.
Physical Distance
Measure Operations
The physical distance measures the straight-line
or
euclidean distance.
Physical distance measure operations calculate
straight- line distances away from cells designated
as the source cells.
Figure 12.12
A straight-line distance is measured from a cell center to
another cell center. This illustration shows the straight-
line distance between cell (1,1) and cell (3,3).
Figure 12.13
Continuous distance measures from a stream
network.
Allocation and
Direction 
Allocation produces a raster in which the cell
value
corresponds to the closest source cell for the
cell.
Direction produces a raster in which the cell
value corresponds to the direction in degrees
that the cell is from the closest source cell.
Figure 12.14
Based on the source cells denoted as 1 and 2, (a) shows the
physical distance measures in cell units from each cell to the
closest source cell; (b) shows the allocation of each cell to the
closest source cell; and (c) shows the direction in degrees from
each cell to the closest source cell. The cell in a dark shade (row
3, column 3) has the same distance to both source cells.
Therefore, the cell can be allocated to either source cell. The
direction of 2430 is to the source cell 1.
Other Raster Data
Operations
1. Operations for raster data management
include Clip and Mosaic.
2. Operations for raster data extraction include
use of a data set, a graphic object, or a query
expression to create a new raster by
extracting data from an existing raster.
3. Operations for raster data generalization
include Aggregate and RegionGroup.
Figure 12.15
An analysis mask (b) is used to clip an input raster (a). The
output
raster is (c), which has the same area extent as the
analysis mask.
Figure 12.16
A circle, shown in white, is used to extract cell values from
the input raster (a). The output (b) has the same area extent
as the input raster but has no data outside the circular area.
Figure 12.17
An Aggregate operation creates a lower-resolution raster
(b) from the input (a). The operation uses the mean
statistic and a factor of 2 (i.e., a cell in b covers 2 x2 cells
in a). For example, the cell value of 4 in (b) is the mean of
{2, 2, 5, 7} in (a).
Figure 12.18
Each cell in the output (b) has a unique number that
identifies the connected region to which it belongs in the
input (a). For example, the connected region that has the
same cell value of 3 in (a) has a unique number of 4 in
(b).
Network
Analyst
 Networ

A network is a system of linear features that
k has the appropriate attributes for the flow of
objects.
 A network is typically topology-based: lines (arcs)
meet at intersections (junctions), lines cannot have
gaps, and lines have directions.
 Attribute data of a road network include link
impedance, turns, one-way streets, and
overpasses/underpasses.

Explain the difference between a

network and a line shapefile.
Unlike a line shapefile, a network is
typically topology-based: lines (arcs)
meet at intersections (nodes), lines
cannot have gaps, and lines have
directions.
Link and Link

A link refers to a road segment defined by two end
Impedance
points. Links are the basic geometric features of a
network.
 Link impedance is the cost of traversing a link.

What is link impedance?

Link impedance is the
cost of traversing a link.
A simple measure of the
cost is the physical length
of the link.
Junction and Turn
 A junction refers to a street
Impedance
intersection.
A turn is a transition from
one street segment to
another at a junction.
Turn impedance is the
time it takes to complete a
turn, which is significant in
a congested street
network. Turn impedance
is directional.
A turn table assigns the
turn impedance value to
each turn in the network.
W
h
a
t
Figure 17.6
Possible turns at node
341.
Figure 17.7
Node 265 has stop signs
for the east–west traffic.
Turn impedance applies
only to turns in the
shaded rows.
Restrictio
nsnetwork. One-way or closed streets are
Restrictions refer to routing requirements on a

examples of restrictions.

What are considered restrictions in network

analysis?
One-way or closed streets are considered
restrictions in
network analysis
Putting Together a
Network
1. Gathering linear features from a network data
source
2. Editing and building network
3. Attributing the network features
 Network analysis
A network with the appropriate attributes can be a
variety of applications including shortest path analysis,
traveling salesman problem, vehicle routing problem,
closest facility, allocation, and location-allocation.
Shortest Path
Analysis
Shortest path analysis finds the path with the
minimum cumulative impedance between nodes on a
network. The path may connect just two nodes—an
origin and a destination—or have specific stops
between the nodes.
Figure 17.8
Link impedance
values between
cities on a road
network.
 (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

(1) ∞ 20 53 58 ∞ ∞
(2) 20 ∞ 39 ∞ ∞ ∞
(3) 53 39 ∞ 25 ∞ 19
(4) 58 ∞ 25 ∞ 13 ∞
(5) ∞ ∞ ∞ 13 ∞ 13
(6) ∞ ∞ 19 ∞ 13 ∞

TABLE 17.1 The Impedance Matrix among Six Nodes in Figure

17.11
 From- To-node Shortest Minimum Cumulative
node Path impedance
1 2 p12
20

1 3 p13
53

1 4 p14
58

1 5 p14 + p45
71

1 6 p13 + p36
72

TABLE 17.2 Shortest Paths from Node 1 to All Other Nodes in

Figure 17.11
Traveling Salesman
Problem
The traveling salesman problem is a routing problem that
adds two constraints to the shortest path analysis: The
salesman must visit each of the select stops only once,
and the salesman may start from any stop but must
return to the original stop.
Vehicle Routing
Problem 
Given a fleet of vehicles and customers, the main
objective of the vehicle routing problem is to schedule
vehicle routes and visits to customers in such a way that
the total travel time is minimized.
Additional constraints such as time windows, vehicle
capacity, and dynamic conditions (e.g., traffic congestion)
may also exist.
Closest
Facility
Closest facility finds the closest facility, such as a
hospital,
fire station, or ATM, to any location on a network.
Figure 17.9
Shortest path
from a street
address to its
closest fire
station, shown
by the square
symbol.
Allocatio
n such as fire stations, or school resources, in terms
Allocation measures the efficiency of public facilities,

areas
of their service The result of an allocation analysis is
. typically presented as service areas.
Why?
Allocation analysis works with the
spatial distribution of resources
such as fire stations and schools.
Therefore, the result of an allocation
analysis is typically presented as
service areas, indicating the area
extents of services that can be
rendered by these resources.
Figure 17.10
Service areas
of two fire
stations within
a 2-minute
response time.
Figure 17.11
Service areas
of two fire
stations
within a 5-
minute
response time.
Location-
Allocation
Location–allocation solves problems of
matching the supply and demand by using
sets of objectives and constraints.

Define location-allocation
analysis.
Location–allocation analysis
solves problems of matching
the supply and
demand by using sets of
objectives and constraints.
Figure 17.12
The two solid squares
represent existing fire
stations, the three open
squares candidate
facilities, and the seven
circles nursing homes.
The map shows the
result of matching two
existing fire stations
with nursing homes
based on the minimum
impedance
model and an
impedance cutoff of 4
minutes on the road
network.
Figure 17.13
The map shows the
result of matching
three fire stations, two
existing ones and one
candidate, with seven
nursing homes based
on the minimum
impedance model and
an impedance cutoff
of 4 minutes on the
road network.
Figure 17.14
The map shows the
result of matching
three fire stations,
two existing ones
and one candidate,
with seven nursing
homes based on the
minimum impedance
model and an
impedance cutoff of 5
minutes on the road
network.
Explain the difference between the minimum distance model and the
maximum covering model in location-allocation analysis.
The minimum distance model minimizes the total distance
traveled from all demand points to their nearest supply centers.
The maximum covering model maximizes the demand covered
within a specified time or distance.
 What is
• network?
A network is a system of interconnected
elements, such as edges (lines) and connecting
junctions (points), that represent possible routes
from one location to another.
• People, resources, and goods tend to travel along
networks: cars and trucks travel on roads,
airliners fly on predetermined flight paths, oil
flows in pipelines. By modeling potential travel
paths with a network, it is possible to perform
analyses related to the movement of the oil,
trucks, or other agents on the network.
• The most common network analysis is
finding the shortest path between two
points.
• ArcGIS groups networks into two
categories:
Types of network
analysis layers
• ArcGIS Network Analyst allows you to solve
common network problems, such as
finding the best route across a city, finding
the closest emergency vehicle or facility,
identifying a service area around a
location, servicing a set of orders with a
fleet of vehicles, or choosing the best
facilities to open or close. 6 types or
solvers:
– Route
– Closest facility
– Service areas
– OD cost matrix (an origin-destination (OD) cost
matrix
from multiple origins to multiple destinations)
– Vehicle routing problem
– Location-allocation
Source: ArcUser 2012