COMMUNICATION SKILLS

 BOS - STU07108
 BDS - DSU07107
 BBSE - BSU07107
 BASE - ASU07103
 Course Instructors:
Dr. Joyce Minja &
Mr. Judicate Selenya
 COURSE CONTENT
• The Basics of Communication
• Nonverbal Communication
• Electronic Communication
• Listening Skills
• Reading Skills
• Speaking Skills
• Writing Skills
• Ethical Academic Practices
• Citations and Reference Writing
 TOPIC I: THE BASICS OF COMMUNICATION
At the end of this topic you are expected to be
able to:
• Define the term communication
• Describe the elements of communication
• List the characteristics and functions
of communication
• Describe various theories of
communication
• Identify barriers of effective
communication
• Suggest suitable ways of overcoming those
barriers.
• Identify major forms of communication
• Identify the importance and types of oral
communication
 The Word Communication: Its Origin and
Meaning:
Origin
• The English word “communication” comes
from the Latin word, ‘Communicare‘ which
means to impart or participate or to transmit.
• The word Communicare‘ is derived from the
root ‘Communis‘ which means to make
common or to share.
• Human beings communicate to exchange
information, ideas, and emotions through
shared symbols.
• The shared symbols can such as words,
gestures, pictures, paralanguage, space, and
time.
• However, for communication to take place the
communicators must attach similar meanings
to the shared symbols.
• Similar meanings arise from a common social
and cultural background of communicators
(ISU, 1980).
 The meaning of communication
• Henson and Means (2001) view
communication as a process we use to send,
receive, and interpret messages so that they are
understood.
• Besides, Rodman and Addler (1997) describe
communication as the process by which
information is exchanged between or among
individuals through a common system of symbols,
signs, and behaviours.
• Generally, communication can then be defined
as the process by which information and its
meaning is exchanged through a common
system of symbols, signs, and behaviours via
a channel.
 A close examination of the above definitions
reveals three significant concepts about
communication:
a. Communication is a process- since it
encompasses a systematic series of actions
or behaviours with purposes and which
occur over some period of time.
b. Communication is about understanding-
sharing of common meaning.

• This only happens when there is an intention

of understanding and being understood by
those involved in a communication situation.
c. Communication makes use of shared symbols
like;
• words,
• gestures,
• pictures,
• paralanguage,
• space,
• and time.
Communication Skills
These are the things that one can learn to help
communicate more clearly and effectively.
The ability to:
• exchange ideas with others,
• understand others' perspectives,
• solve problems and
• successfully utilize the steps and processes of
communication- (indicate significantly one’s level
of communication skills).
• One’s ability to transfer meaning or
information to others and from others to
hi/her requires him to master communication
skills which include; reading, listening,
thinking, studying, writing, remembering,
speaking and mastery of grammar of a
particular language he/she communicates in.
 Functions of communication
Basically in a normal life situation
communication satisfies our needs such as: :
a. Social needs-establishment of relationships
which consequently reduce stress and ensure
good health.
• Besides, we conform to societal norms and
obligations through communication.
b. Psychological needs-to build our self-
esteem when we get positive
comments and reactions about
our behaviours and actions.
• Thus, increase our chances for success.
communicate even to get our
basic needs; for example-
explaining our body conditions so
as to get medical treatment;
communicating to gain information
and to influence others.
 The purposes of communication in an
organization:
• to acquire necessary information for
making informed decisions and about issues
which affect their job performance
and welfares.
• to solve problems like conflicts; negotiating,
and bargaining.
• to establish relationships -socialization
• to influence, motivate, and train each other
particularly subordinates.
• to learn new ways of doing things and to
acquire innovative job skills-innovation
• to coordinate tasks and groups in the
organisation.
 Communication process
Communication process consists of five basic
components/elements namely:
• Sender
• Message
• Channel
• Receiver
• Feedback (Means&Means,2001)
 1. Sender
In the communication process sender has the
following responsibilities:
• Sender is a person who initiates
communication process.
• Sender creates an idea and then converting
the idea into symbols which constitute a
message and its meaning. This process is
known as encoding.
• Sender also selects an appropriate channel for
conveying the message in accordance to the
communication situation and the nature of
the message.
• In addition, the sender examines the
audience characteristics such as attitudes,
interests, beliefs, values, and emotional state.
• Besides, the sender analyzes and understands
the message environment.

Message environment - is the physical and

social setting in which the message is
sent.
• Moreover, the sender should encourage the
receiver to give feedback as well as enabling
the receiver to interpret and understand
the message.

• Therefore, the sender should be open,

sincere, and attentive to the needs and
concerns of fellow communicators.
 2. Message
• Message is the outcomes of
encoding process by the sender.
• It is the composition of symbols
whether verbal or nonverbal which
carry meaning.
• Verbal symbols refers to words which
we use when speaking or writing.
• Nonverbal symbols refers to space,
time, paralanguage, body language like
gesture, posture, facial expressions,
appearance, and eye contact .
3. Channel
• Channel is a medium over which the
message is transmitted to the
receiver.
• Common channels for oral messages
are like one-to-one/one-to-many
conversations, telephones and internet
system.
• For written messages people normally
use channels like letters, memos, notices,
announcements and reports.
• In case of electronic messages
communicators usually use channels
such as E-mails, Fax, videoconference
and teleconferences.
 Factors to consider in selecting appropriate
channel Guffey (2004).
• Nature of the message
• Amount and speed of feedback
• Necessity for a permanent record
• Cost of the channel
• Degree of desired formality
• Communication situation
 4. Receiver
• Is a person or thing to which a message is
sent. The basic role of receiver is to decode
the message from the sender and give
feedback.
• To decode the message is to translate the
symbols and derive the meaning embedded in
the message.
 5. Feedback
• Feedback is the response of receiver to the
sender’s message.
• It is a vital part of the entire communication
process because it enables the sender to know
whether the receiver has received and
understood the message.
context

• A significant point to note is that communication never occurs in a

vacuum. Communication is inextricably linked to the particular
context in which it occurs, which in turn has a major impact upon
behaviour.
• Clampitt (2005 p.36) notes that ‘context basically functions as the
background for the content, much like a canvas for a painting’.
Consider the following points:
• A specific context may predispose toward certain probable
interpretations over others. For example, the statement ‘I’ve got a
bug’, may be interpreted differently when it is used in a conversation
between two software engineers, compared to when it is spoken by a
sneezing colleague.
• Similarly, the question ‘How are you?’ may be interpreted differently
when it is exchanged between two acquaintances passing in the
street, compared to when it is asked in a doctor’s surgery. ii. The
context will also play a significant role in shaping the response.
Figure 3.1. Communication Process
PHASE
VI
PHASE I Receiver
Sender sends
has feedback
an
idea

PHASE V
Receiver
PHASE II decodes the
Sender CHANNEL message to
encodes an derive the
idea to create embedded
a message meaning

PHASE
PHASE III 1V
Sender Receiver gets
transmits the message
messages
 The models of communication

• Model of communication is a diagrammatical

representation of what happens when sender
and receiver communicate.
• Actually, there are many communication
models which serve a variety of
purposes.
• They range from single event analyses
which can be used to instruct beginners,
to the complex models which are usually
understood only by specialist in the field
of communication.
 The most common models which
describe communication are:
(Adler&Rodman, 1997)
• Linear model of communication
• Interactive model of
communication
• Transactional model of
communication
 Linear Model of Communication
- Linear model was adopted from a model
created by Laswell in 1948 and improved by
Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver in
1949.
- Linear model had provided a general model
which forms a base from which other
modern models of communication were
formulated.
• Linear model of communication asserts
that: Communication is one way exchange of
information whereby one person-sender
acts on another person-receiver.
• This implies that communication is like giving
injection whereby the sender encode ideas
and feelings and transmit them to the passive
receiver who has nothing to do in the process.
• Most of the time communication
process is interfered by some
barriers- noise which may hinder
smooth transmission of message
across the channel or destruct the
meaning of the message as intended
by the sender.
 The shortcomings of the linear model:
a. They portrayed communication as flowing
only in one direction-from the sender to the
receiver.
• But this is not how communication really
occurs.
• After receiving the message the receiver
responds to the message verbally or nonverbally.
b. It also assumes that all
communication involve encoding-
something that can be applied
only to verbal symbols and
exclude nonverbal symbols.
Linear model is illustrated in the figure
below:

NOISE NOISE NOISE NOISE NOISE

SENDER RECEIVER
ENCODE MESSAGE
CHANNEL DECODES

Figure 4.1. Linear model of communication

 Interactive/Circular Model of
Communication
• Wilbur Schramm (1955) came out
with a more interactive model which
in contrast to linear model by
Shannon and Weaver.
• The interactive model views
communication as two way
exchange of information.
• The sender sends the message and
the receiver responds to the
message by sending another
message of his own-feedback.
• Besides, Schram suggests that it is more
accurate to replace the term encoding in the
linear model with broader label
“behaviour”.
• The term behavior describes both deliberate-
verbal symbols and unintentional-nonverbal
symbols in contrary to encoding which
describes only verbal symbols.
• Although the interactive model is the
improvement over linear model, it
still portrays communication as a
sequential process in which one
person is a sender and another is a
receiver.
• This implies that there are discrete
acts of communication beginning
and ending at identifiable times.
•
However in reality, everyone who
is involved in the communication
process can send and receive
messages.
:

Noise Noise Noise

FIELD OF EXPERIENCE FIELD OF EXPERIENCE

DECODES RECEIV
RECEIV MESSAG
DECODE ER
ER E
S C

SENDER
H BEHAVE
SENDER
MESSAGE S
BEHAV
E S A

Figure 4.2. Interactive model of communication

 Transactional Model of Communication
• In 1970 Dean Barnlund brought forth a
transactional model of communication.
• This model suggests that at a given moment in
communication a person can send and receive
message verbally or nonverbally in a
simultaneously way.
• Thus, the roles of sender and
receiver that seemed separate in the
interactive model are now
superimposed and redefined as
communicators.
• Barnlund also argues that human
communication varies over
time.
• Communication changes as
communicator’s field of experience and the
shared field of experience between
communicators change over time.
• The changes as communicators
encounter new people and have new
experiences that broaden them,
their abilities.
• In addition, Barnlund asserts that
communication occurs within contexts which
affect what and how people communicate and
what meanings are created.
• The contexts include the shared systems
of communicators, for example the shared
campus, workplace, religion, social groups,
and culture.
• Transactional model of communication
BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
• Communication barrier is anything that
obstructs communication from being
effective.
• Likewise, is said to be anything causing
communication breakdown between a sender
and a receiver.
Barriers to communication can be categorized
into the following categories:
• Physical barriers
• Psychological barriers
• Semantic barriers
• Physiological barriers
• Social barriers
• Barriers within organization
1. Physical barriers
• Physical barriers include: noises from
machines in factories, vehicle engines,
equipments, and weather conditions,
uncomfortable venue, vocal qualities etc.
• It usually distracts attention and reduce the
receiver’s concentration on the message.
2. Psychological barriers
• Psychological barriers are created in the mind.
• These barriers are rooted in the cognitive
and emotional aspects of the human psyche
and can significantly impact the quality of
communication.
• Here are some of the key psychological
barriers:
i. Prejudice and Bias:
• Prejudice and bias refer to preconceived judgments
or opinions about individuals or groups based on
factors like race, gender, age, religion, or other
personal characteristics.
• When people hold biased views, they may make
unfair assumptions about others, leading to
misinterpretation of their messages and actions.
ii. Emotional Barriers:
• Strong emotions such as anger, fear, anxiety, or
stress can impede effective communication.
• When individuals are overwhelmed by these
emotions, their ability to think rationally and
communicate clearly can be compromised. For
example, an angry person may resort to aggressive
language and behavior, making it difficult to convey
their message or understand others.
iii. Perceptual Filters:
• Each individual perceptual filters influence how we
interpret messages.
• When people from different backgrounds or with
varying experiences communicate, their distinct
filters can lead to misunderstandings.
• What one person says may be received differently
by another based on their personal perspectives
and biases.
iii. Stereotyping:
• Stereotyping involves categorizing people based on
generalizations about a particular group they
belong to.
• This can lead to the oversimplification of
individuals' characteristics and behaviors.
• Stereotypes can hinder effective communication by
causing people to make assumptions about others
without considering their individuality.
• This can lead to misunderstandings and
misjudgments
3. SEMANTIC BARRIERS:

• Barriers pertaining to language vary from spoken words to graphics,

charts etc.
• Because language is a symbolic representation of a phenomenon,
room for interpretation and distortion of the meaning exists.
• Similar is the case with graphics, charts, maps, diagrams and such
other things.
• Semantic barriers occur when the sender and the receiver assign
different meanings to the same words.
• The chief language-related barriers are as
under:
i. Badly Expressed Message: This barrier is
created because of the wrong choice of
words, uncivil words, the wrong sequence of
sentences and frequent repetitions.
ii. Symbols or Words with Different Meanings
• A symbol or a word can have different
meanings.
• If the receiver misunderstands the
communication, it becomes meaningless. For
example, the word ‘value’ can have different
meanings in the following sentences:
iv. Un-clarified Assumptions:
• It has been observed that sometimes a sender
takes it for granted that the receiver knows
some basic things and, therefore, it is enough
to tell him about the major subject matter.
• This point of view of the sender is correct to
some extent with reference to the daily
communication, but it is absolutely wrong in
case of some special message,
v. Technical Jargon:
• Technical language can be a barrier in
communication.
• Every field use technical words specific for the
field; when technical language is used to the
people who are not the members of such
group communication barrier occurs.
4. Physiological barriers
• Physiological barriers are related to the health of the
communicators-biological disorders which affect the
biological process associated with the communication.

• Physiological barriers like hearing and visual

impairment, headache etc make reception of sound
waves difficult and sometimes reduce receiver’s
concentration on the message during listening.
5. Cultural Barriers:
• Differences in culture: Varied cultural
norms, customs, and communication
styles can lead to misunderstandings.
• Nonverbal communication: Gestures,
facial expressions, and body language
may carry different meanings in
different cultures.
• What is wrong in one society may be
OK in another and vise versa.
 6. ORGANIZATIONAL BARRIERS
a. Information overload
• Too much information is as bad as too little
because it reduces the audience's ability to
concentrate effectively on most important
message.
b. Message Complexity
• The Complexity of messages is related to
the conflict about the content; when
formulating business messages a writer should
formulate simple and clear message.
 C. Differing status.
• Employees of low status may be overly
cautious when sending messages to a
manager and may talk only about subject they
think the manager is interested in.
• Similarly, higher-status people may distort
messages by refusing to discuss anything that
would tend to undermine their authority in
the organization
 d. Incorrect choice of medium.
• An inappropriate communication medium,
distort the message therefore the
intended meaning is blocked.
e. Lack of transparency:
• When organizations withhold
information or are not forthcoming
about their intentions, it can lead to
mistrust and ineffective
communication.
Tutorial questions

1. (a) Explain the Linear Model of

communication and discuss in what contexts it
is most effective. (b) How does this model's
focus on one-way messaging impact the clarity
and reception of a message? (Group 7)
2. Compare and contrast the Interactive and
Transactional Models of communication.
(Group no. 4)
3.(a) Describe how noise can interfere with
each communication model.
(b) What types of noise (physical,
psychological, semantic) are most challenging
for the Linear Model compared to the
Transactional Model, and why? (Group no 5)
4.(a) Discuss how context and environment
play a role in the Transactional Model of
communication.
(b) How do these factors shape the
communication process and influence message
interpretation? (Group no. 3)
5. (a) Why is the Interactive Model often considered
an improvement over the Linear Model in
organizational communication?
(b) What limitations of the Linear Model does the
Interactive Model address, and in what ways can it
still fall short? (Group 8)
6. In the Transactional Model, the sender and
receiver roles are interdependent and simultaneous.
How does this interdependence support relationship-
building in communication, and what challenges
might it present in high-stakes conversations?
(Group 6)
7. (a) How does the concept of feedback in the
Interactive Model differ from feedback in the
Transactional Model, especially regarding real-
time communication?
(b) What unique challenges does each model
face in managing feedback effectively?(Group
no 2)
8. Critically assess the effectiveness of the
Linear Model in today’s digital communication
landscape. Are there situations where this
model is more advantageous than the
Interactive or Transactional Models? Provide
reasons.(group No. 1)
9. How does each communication model
approach the concept of shared meaning, and
which model do you think is best suited to
achieving mutual understanding between
communicators? (Group 9)
10. Explain how the use of the Transactional
Model might vary across different cultures,
where communication styles and norms differ.
How might a communicator adapt this model to
better suit cross-cultural interactions? (Group
No. 10)

11. Discuss the techniques to overcome

barriers of effective communication? (All
groups)
12. What ways can technological
barriers disrupt communication?