Chapter 5

Network
Layer:
Control
Plane
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Computer Networking: A
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Top-Down Approach
Thanks and enjoy! JFK/KWR 8th edition
Jim Kurose, Keith Ross
All material copyright 1996-2023
J.F Kurose and K.W. Ross, All Rights Reserved Pearson, 2020
Network layer control plane: our
goals
 understand principles  instantiation, implementation
behind network control in the Internet:
plane: • OSPF, BGP
• traditional routing algorithms • OpenFlow, ODL and ONOS
• SDN controllers controllers
• network management, • Internet Control Message
configuration Protocol: ICMP
• SNMP, YANG/NETCONF

Network Layer: 5-2

 Network layer: “control plane” roadmap

 introduction
 routing protocols
 link state
 distance vector
 intra-ISP routing: OSPF
 routing among ISPs: BGP
 network management,
 SDN control plane
configuration
 Internet Control Message • SNMP
Protocol • NETCONF/YANG

Network Layer: 5-3

Network-layer functions
 forwarding: move packets from router’s
input to appropriate router output data plane
 routing: determine route taken by
packets from source to destination control plane

Two approaches to structuring network control plane:

 per-router control (traditional)
 logically centralized control (software defined networking)

Network Layer: 5-4

Per-router control plane
Individual routing algorithm components in each and every
router interact in the control plane

Routing
Algorithm
control
plane

data
plane

values in arriving
packet header
0111 1
2
3

Network Layer: 5-5

Software-Defined Networking (SDN) control plane
Remote controller computes, installs forwarding tables in routers

Remote Controller

control
plane

data
plane

CA
CA CA CA CA
values in arriving
packet header

0111 1
2
3

Network Layer: 5-6

Per-router
SDN control
control
plane
plane
 Network layer: “control plane” roadmap

 introduction
 routing protocols
 link state
 distance vector
 intra-ISP routing: OSPF
 routing among ISPs: BGP  network management,
 SDN control plane configuration
 Internet Control Message • SNMP
Protocol • NETCONF/YANG

Network Layer: 5-8

Routing protocols mobile network
national or global ISP
Routing protocol goal: determine “good”
paths (equivalently, routes), from sending
hosts to receiving host, through network
application
transport
network
of routers link
physical
network

 path: sequence of routers packets

network
link link
physical physical

traverse from given initial source host to network

final destination host link

physical
network
link
physical network

 “good”: least “cost”, “fastest”, “least

link datacenter
physical network

congested” application

 routing: a “top-10” networking

transport
network
enterprise link

challenge! network physical

Network Layer: 5-9

Graph abstraction:
link costs
5
ca,b: cost of direct link connecting a and b
3
v w 5 e.g., cw,z = 5, cu,z = ∞
2
u 2 1 z
3
1 cost defined by network operator:
2
x 1
y could always be 1, or inversely related
to bandwidth, or inversely related to
congestion
graph: G = (N,E)
N: set of routers = { u, v, w, x, y, z }
E: set of links ={ (u,v), (u,x), (v,x), (v,w), (x,w), (x,y), (w,y), (w,z), (y,z) }

Network Layer: 5-10

 Routing algorithm
classification
global: all routers have complete
topology, link cost info
• “link state” algorithms
How fast
dynamic: routes change
do routes static: routes change more quickly
change? slowly over time • periodic updates or in
response to link cost
changes
decentralized: iterative process of
computation, exchange of info with neighbors
• routers initially only know link costs to
attached neighbors
• “distance vector” algorithms
global or decentralized information? Network Layer: 5-11
 Network layer: “control plane” roadmap

 introduction
 routing protocols
 link state
 distance vector
 intra-ISP routing: OSPF
 routing among ISPs: BGP  network management,
 SDN control plane configuration
 Internet Control Message • SNMP
Protocol • NETCONF/YANG

Network Layer: 5-12

Dijkstra’s link-state routing algorithm
 centralized: network topology, link notation
costs known to all nodes
 cx,y: direct link cost from node
• accomplished via “link state
broadcast” x to y; = ∞ if not direct
neighbors
• all nodes have same info
 D(v): current estimate of cost
 computes least cost paths from one of least-cost-path from source
node (“source”) to all other nodes to destination v
• gives forwarding table for that node  p(v): predecessor node along
 iterative: after k iterations, know path from source to v
 N': set of nodes whose least-
least cost path to k destinations cost-path definitively known

Network Layer: 5-13

Dijkstra’s link-state routing algorithm
1 Initialization:
2 N' = {u} /* compute least cost path from u to all other nodes */
3 for all nodes v
4 if v adjacent to u /* u initially knows direct-path-cost only to direct neighbors */
5 then D(v) = cu,v /* but may not be minimum cost! */
6 else D(v) = ∞
7
8 Loop
9 find w not in N' such that D(w) is a minimum
10 add w to N'
11 update D(v) for all v adjacent to w and not in N' :
12 D(v) = min ( D(v), D(w) + cw,v )
13 /* new least-path-cost to v is either old least-cost-path to v or known
14 least-cost-path to w plus direct-cost from w to v */
15 until all nodes in N'
Network Layer: 5-14
Dijkstra’s algorithm: an example
v w x y z
Step N' D(v),p(v) D(w),p(w) D(x),p(x) D(y),p(y) D(z),p(z)
0 u 2,u 5,u 1,u ∞ ∞
1
2
3
4
5

5 Initialization (step 0):

For all a: if a adjacent to u then D(a) = cu,a
3
v w 5
2
u 2 1 z
3
1 2
x 1
y
Dijkstra’s algorithm: an example
v w x y z
Step N' D(v),p(v) D(w),p(w) D(x),p(x) D(y),p(y) D(z),p(z)
0 u 2,u 5,u 1,u ∞ ∞
1 ux
2
3
4
5
8 Loop
5 9 find a not in N' such that D(a) is a minimum
v 3
w 10 add a to N'
2 5
u 2 1 z
3
1 2
x 1
y
Dijkstra’s algorithm: an example
v w x y z
Step N' D(v),p(v) D(w),p(w) D(x),p(x) D(y),p(y) D(z),p(z)
0 u 2,u 5,u 1,u ∞ ∞
1 ux 2,u 4,x 2,x ∞
2
3
4
5
8 Loop
5 9 find a not in N' such that D(a) is a minimum
v 3
w 10 add a to N'
5
2 11 update D(b) for all b adjacent to a and not in N' :
u 2 1 z D(b) = min ( D(b), D(a) + ca,b )
3
1 2 D(v) = min ( D(v), D(x) + cx,v ) = min(2, 1+2) = 2
x y
1 D(w) = min ( D(w), D(x) + cx,w ) = min (5, 1+3) = 4
D(y) = min ( D(y), D(x) + cx,y ) = min(inf,1+1) = 2
Dijkstra’s algorithm: an example
v w x y z
Step N' D(v),p(v) D(w),p(w) D(x),p(x) D(y),p(y) D(z),p(z)
0 u 2,u 5,u 1,u ∞ ∞
1 ux 2,u 4,x 2,x ∞
2 uxy
3
4
5
8 Loop
5 9 find a not in N' such that D(a) is a minimum
v 3
w 10 add a to N'
2 5
u 2 1 z
3
1 2
x 1
y
Dijkstra’s algorithm: an example
v w x y z
Step N' D(v),p(v) D(w),p(w) D(x),p(x) D(y),p(y) D(z),p(z)
0 u 2,u 5,u 1,u ∞ ∞
1 ux 2,u 4,x 2,x ∞
2 uxy 2,u 3,y 4,y
3
4
5
8 Loop
5 9 find a not in N' such that D(a) is a minimum
v 3
w 10 add a to N'
5
2 11 update D(b) for all b adjacent to a and not in N' :
u 2 1 z D(b) = min ( D(b), D(a) + ca,b )
3
1 2
x y D(w) = min ( D(w), D(y) + cy,w ) = min (4, 2+1) = 3
1 D(z) = min ( D(z), D(y) + cy,z ) = min(inf,2+2) = 4
Dijkstra’s algorithm: an example
v w x y z
Step N' D(v),p(v) D(w),p(w) D(x),p(x) D(y),p(y) D(z),p(z)
0 u 2,u 5,u 1,u ∞ ∞
1 ux 2,u 4,x 2,x ∞
2 uxy 2,u 3,y 4,y
3 uxyv
4
5
8 Loop
5 9 find a not in N' such that D(a) is a minimum
v 3
w 10 add a to N'
2 5
u 2 1 z
3
1 2
x 1
y
Dijkstra’s algorithm: an example
v w x y z
Step N' D(v),p(v) D(w),p(w) D(x),p(x) D(y),p(y) D(z),p(z)
0 u 2,u 5,u 1,u ∞ ∞
1 ux 2,u 4,x 2,x ∞
2 uxy 2,u 3,y 4,y
3 uxyv 3,y 4,y
4
5
8 Loop
5 9 find a not in N' such that D(a) is a minimum
v 3
w 10 add a to N'
5
2 11 update D(b) for all b adjacent to a and not in N' :
u 2 1 z D(b) = min ( D(b), D(a) + ca,b )
3
1 2
x y D(w) = min ( D(w), D(v) + cv,w ) = min (3, 2+3) = 3
1
Dijkstra’s algorithm: an example
v w x y z
Step N' D(v),p(v) D(w),p(w) D(x),p(x) D(y),p(y) D(z),p(z)
0 u 2,u 5,u 1,u ∞ ∞
1 ux 2,u 4,x 2,x ∞
2 uxy 2,u 3,y 4,y
3 uxyv 3,y 4,y
4 uxyvw
5
8 Loop
5 9 find a not in N' such that D(a) is a minimum
v 3
w 10 add a to N'
2 5
u 2 1 z
3
1 2
x 1
y
Dijkstra’s algorithm: an example
v w x y z
Step N' D(v),p(v) D(w),p(w) D(x),p(x) D(y),p(y) D(z),p(z)
0 u 2,u 5,u 1,u ∞ ∞
1 ux 2,u 4,x 2,x ∞
2 uxy 2,u 3,y 4,y
3 uxyv 3,y 4,y
4 uxyvw 4,y
5
8 Loop
5 9 find a not in N' such that D(a) is a minimum
v 3
w 10 add a to N'
5
2 11 update D(b) for all b adjacent to a and not in N' :
u 2 1 z D(b) = min ( D(b), D(a) + ca,b )
3
1 2
x y D(z) = min ( D(z), D(w) + cw,z ) = min (4, 3+5) = 4
1
Dijkstra’s algorithm: an example
v w x y z
Step N' D(v),p(v) D(w),p(w) D(x),p(x) D(y),p(y) D(z),p(z)
0 u 2,u 5,u 1,u ∞ ∞
1 ux 2,u 4,x 2,x ∞
2 uxy 2,u 3,y 4,y
3 uxyv 3,y 4,y
4 uxyvw 4,y
5 uxyvwz
8 Loop
5 9 find a not in N' such that D(a) is a minimum
v 3
w 10 add a to N'
2 5
u 2 1 z
3
1 2
x 1
y
Dijkstra’s algorithm: an example
v w x y z
Step N' D(v),p(v) D(w),p(w) D(x),p(x) D(y),p(y) D(z),p(z)
0 u 2,u 5,u 1,u ∞ ∞
1 ux 2,u 4,x 2,x ∞
2 uxy 2,u 3,y 4,y
3 uxyv 3,y 4,y
4 uxyvw 4,y
5 uxyvwz
8 Loop
5 9 find a not in N' such that D(a) is a minimum
v 3
w 10 add a to N'
5
2 11 update D(b) for all b adjacent to a and not in N' :
u 2 1 z D(b) = min ( D(b), D(a) + ca,b )
3
1 2
x 1
y
 Dijkstra’s algorithm: an example
5
3
v w 5
2
u 2 1 z
3
1 2
x 1
y

resulting least-cost-path tree from u: resulting forwarding table in u:

destination outgoing link
v w
v (u,v) route from u to v directly
u z x (u,x)
y (u,x) route from u to all
x y w (u,x) other destinations
x (u,x) via x
Network Layer: 5-27
 Dijkstra’s algorithm: another example
v w x y z
D(v), D(w), D(x), D(y), D(z), x
9
Step N' p(v) p(w) p(x) p(y) p(z)

0 u 7,u 3,u 5,u ∞ ∞ 5 7

4
1 uw 6,w 5,u 11,w ∞ 8
2 uwx 6,w 11,w 14,x 3 w z
u y
2
3 uwxv 10,v 14,x
3
4 uwxvy 12,y 7 4

5 uwxvyz v

notes:
 construct least-cost-path tree by tracing predecessor nodes
 ties can exist (can be broken arbitrarily)
Network Layer: 5-28
Dijkstra’s algorithm: discussion
algorithm complexity: n nodes
 each of n iteration: need to check all nodes, w, not in N
 n(n+1)/2 comparisons: O(n2) complexity
 more efficient implementations possible: O(nlogn)
message complexity:
 each router must broadcast its link state information to other n routers
 efficient (and interesting!) broadcast algorithms: O(n) link crossings to disseminate a
broadcast message from one source
 each router’s message crosses O(n) links: overall message complexity: O(n2)

Network Layer: 5-29

 Dijkstra’s algorithm: oscillations possible
 when link costs depend on traffic volume, route oscillations possible
 sample scenario:
• routing to destination a, traffic entering at d, c, e with rates 1, e (<1), 1
• link costs are directional, and volume-dependent

a 2+e
a 0
a 2+e a
1 1+e 0 2+e 0
d b d 1+e 1 b d 0 0 b d 1+e 1 b
0 0
e 1 0 1
1 0
c 0 1 1
c 1+e 1 1 0 0 1
c 1 c
e e e
e
given these costs, given these costs, given these costs,
initially find new routing…. find new routing…. find new routing….
resulting in new costs resulting in new costs resulting in new costs

Network Layer: 5-30

Day2

Network Layer: 5-31

 Network layer: “control plane” roadmap

 introduction
 routing protocols
 link state
 distance vector
 intra-ISP routing: OSPF
 routing among ISPs: BGP  network management,
 SDN control plane configuration
 Internet Control Message • SNMP
Protocol • NETCONF/YANG

Network Layer: 5-32

Distance vector algorithm
Based on Bellman-Ford (BF) equation (dynamic programming):
Bellman-Ford equation

Let Dx(y): cost of least-cost path from x to y.

Then:
Dx(y) = minv { cx,v + Dv(y) }

v’s estimated least-cost-path cost to y

min taken over all neighbors v of x direct cost of link from x to v
Network Layer: 5-33
Bellman-Ford Example
Suppose that u’s neighboring nodes, x,v,w, know that for destination z:
Dv(z) = 5 Dw(z) = 3 Bellman-Ford equation says:
5
Du(z) = min { cu,v + Dv(z),
3 w
v 5 cu,x + Dx(z),
2
u 2 1 z cu,w + Dw(z) }
3
1 2
= min {2 + 5,
x 1
y 1 + 3,
5 + 3} = 4
Dx(z) = 3
node achieving minimum (x) is
next hop on estimated least-
cost path to destination (z)
Network Layer: 5-34
Distance vector algorithm
key idea:
 from time-to-time, each node sends its own distance vector estimate
to neighbors
 when x receives new DV estimate from any neighbor, it updates its
own DV using B-F equation:
Dx(y) ← minv{cx,v + Dv(y)} for each node y ∊ N

 under minor, natural conditions, the estimate Dx(y) converge to the

actual least cost dx(y)

Network Layer: 5-35

Distance vector algorithm:
each node: iterative, asynchronous: each local
iteration caused by:
 local link cost change
wait for (change in local link
cost or msg from neighbor)  DV update message from neighbor

distributed, self-stopping: each

recompute DV estimates using node notifies neighbors only when
DV received from neighbor its DV changes
 neighbors then notify their
if DV to any destination has neighbors – only if necessary
changed, notify neighbors  no notification received, no
actions taken!

Network Layer: 5-36

 Distance vector: example
DV in a:
Da(a)=0
Da(b) = 8
Da(c) = ∞ a b c
8 1
Da(d) = 1

t=0 Da(e) = ∞
Da(f) = ∞ 1 1
Da(g) = ∞
 All nodes have
Da(h) = ∞
distance estimates
Da(i) = ∞ A few asymmetries:
to nearest d e f  missing link
neighbors (only) 1 1
 larger cost
 All nodes send
their local
distance vector to 1 1 1
their neighbors

g h i
1 1

Network Layer: 5-37

 Distance vector example:
iteration
a b c
8 1

t=1 1 1
All nodes:
 receive distance
vectors from
neighbors d e f
 compute their new 1 1
local distance
vector
 send their new
1 1 1
local distance
vector to neighbors

g h i
1 1

Network Layer: 5-38

 Distance vector example:
iteration
a
compute compute
b compute
c
8 1

t=1 1 1
All nodes:
 receive distance
vectors from
neighbors d
compute compute
e compute
f
 compute their new 1 1
local distance
vector
 send their new
1 1 1
local distance
vector to neighbors

g
compute h
compute compute
i
1 1

Network Layer: 5-39

 Distance vector example:
iteration
a b c
8 1

t=1 1 1
All nodes:
 receive distance
vectors from
neighbors d e f
 compute their new 1 1
local distance
vector
 send their new
1 1 1
local distance
vector to neighbors

g h i
1 1

Network Layer: 5-40

 Distance vector example:
iteration
a b c
8 1

t=2 1 1
All nodes:
 receive distance
vectors from
neighbors d e f
 compute their new 1 1
local distance
vector
 send their new
1 1 1
local distance
vector to neighbors

g h i
1 1

Network Layer: 5-41

 Distance vector example:
iteration
compute
a compute
b compute
c
2 1

t=2 1 1
All nodes:
 receive distance
vectors from
neighbors d
compute compute
e compute
f
 compute their new 1 1
local distance
vector
 send their new
1 1 1
local distance
vector to neighbors

g
compute compute
h compute
i
8 1

Network Layer: 5-42

 Distance vector example:
iteration
a b c
8 1

t=2 1 1
All nodes:
 receive distance
vectors from
neighbors d e f
 compute their new 1 1
local distance
vector
 send their new
1 1 1
local distance
vector to neighbors

g h i
1 1

Network Layer: 5-43

Distance vector example:
iteration

…. and so on

Let’s next take a look at the iterative computations at nodes

Network Layer: 5-44

 Distance vector example:
DV in b: DV in c:

computation
Dc(a) = ∞
Db(a) = 8 Db(f) = ∞
Db(c) = 1 Db(g) = ∞ Dc(b) = 1
DV in a: Db(d) = ∞ Db(h) = ∞ Dc(c) = 0
Da(a)=0 Db(e) = 1 Db(i) = ∞ Dc(d) = ∞
Da(b) = 8 Dc(e) = ∞
Da(c) = ∞ a b c Dc(f) = ∞
8 1
Da(d) = 1 Dc(g) = ∞

t=1 Da(e) = ∞
Da(f) = ∞ 1 1
Dc(h) = ∞
Dc(i) = ∞
 b receives DVs Da(g) = ∞ DV in e:
from a, c, e Da(h) = ∞ De(a) = ∞
Da(i) = ∞ De(b) = 1
d e f De(c) = ∞
1 1
De(d) = 1
De(e) = 0
De(f) = 1
1 1 1
De(g) = ∞
De(h) = 1
De(i) = ∞
g h i
1 1

Network Layer: 5-45

 Distance vector example:
DV in b: DV in c:

computation
Dc(a) = ∞
Db(a) = 8 Db(f) = ∞
Db(c) = 1 Db(g) = ∞ Dc(b) = 1
DV in a: Db(d) = ∞ Db(h) = ∞ Dc(c) = 0
Da(a)=0 Db(e) = 1 Db(i) = ∞ Dc(d) = ∞
Da(b) = 8 Dc(e) = ∞
Da(c) = ∞ a b c Dc(f) = ∞
8 compute 1
Da(d) = 1 Dc(g) = ∞

t=1 Da(e) = ∞
Da(f) = ∞ 1 1
Dc(h) = ∞
Dc(i) = ∞
 b receives DVs Da(g) = ∞ DV in e:
from a, c, e, Da(h) = ∞ De(a) = ∞
computes: e
Da(i) = ∞ De(b) = 1
d e f De(c) = ∞
1
Db(a) = min{cb,a+Da(a), cb,c +Dc(a), cb,e+De(a)} = min{8,∞,∞} =8 1
De(d) = 1
Db(c) = min{cb,a+Da(c), cb,c +Dc(c), c b,e +De(c)} = min{∞,1,∞} = 1
De(e) = 0
Db(d) = min{cb,a+Da(d), cb,c +Dc(d), c b,e +De(d)} = min{9,2,∞} = 2 De(f) = 1
1 1 1
Db(e) = min{cb,a+Da(e), cb,c +Dc(e), c b,e +De(e)} = min{∞,∞,1} = 1 De(g) = ∞
Db(f) = min{cb,a+Da(f), cb,c +Dc(f), c b,e +De(f)} = min{∞,∞,2} = 2
DV in b: De(h) = 1
Db(g) = min{cb,a+Da(g), cb,c +Dc(g), c b,e+De(g)} = min{∞, ∞, ∞} = ∞ Db(a) = 8 Db(f) =2 De(i) = ∞
g h 1Db(c) = 1 Db(g)i = ∞
1 ∞, 2} = 2
Db(h) = min{cb,a+Da(h), cb,c +Dc(h), c b,e+De(h)} = min{∞,
Db(d) = 2 Db(h) = 2
Db(i) = min{cb,a+Da(i), cb,c +Dc(i), c b,e+De(i)} = min{∞, ∞, ∞} = ∞ Db(e) = 1 Db(i) = ∞
Network Layer: 5-46
 Distance vector example:
DV in b: DV in c:

computation
Dc(a) = ∞
Db(a) = 8 Db(f) = ∞
Db(c) = 1 Db(g) = ∞ Dc(b) = 1
DV in a: Db(d) = ∞ Db(h) = ∞ Dc(c) = 0
Da(a)=0 Db(e) = 1 Db(i) = ∞ Dc(d) = ∞
Da(b) = 8 Dc(e) = ∞
Da(c) = ∞ a b c Dc(f) = ∞
8 1
Da(d) = 1 Dc(g) = ∞

t=1 Da(e) = ∞
Da(f) = ∞ 1 1
Dc(h) = ∞
Dc(i) = ∞
 c receives DVs Da(g) = ∞ DV in e:
from b Da(h) = ∞ De(a) = ∞
Da(i) = ∞ De(b) = 1
d e f De(c) = ∞
1 1
De(d) = 1
De(e) = 0
De(f) = 1
1 1 1
De(g) = ∞
De(h) = 1
De(i) = ∞
g h i
1 1

Network Layer: 5-47

 Distance vector example:
DV in b: DV in c:

computation
Dc(a) = ∞
Db(a) = 8 Db(f) = ∞
Db(c) = 1 Db(g) = ∞ Dc(b) = 1
Db(d) = ∞ Db(h) = ∞ Dc(c) = 0
Db(e) = 1 Db(i) = ∞ Dc(d) = ∞
Dc(e) = ∞
a b c
compute Dc(f) = ∞
8 1
Dc(g) = ∞

t=1 1 1
Dc(h) = ∞
Dc(i) = ∞
 c receives DVs
from b computes:

d b(a}} = 1 + 8 = 9
Dc(a) = min{cc,b+D e f
DV in c:
Dc(b) = min{cc,b+Db(b)} = 1 + 0 = 1
Dc(a) = 9
Dc(d) = min{cc,b+Db(d)} = 1+ ∞ = ∞ Dc(b) = 1
Dc(e) = min{cc,b+Db(e)} = 1 + 1 = 2 Dc(c) = 0
Dc(f) = min{cc,b+Db(f)} = 1+ ∞ = ∞ Dc(d) = 2
Dc(g) = min{cc,b+Db(g)} = 1+ ∞ = ∞ Dc(e) = ∞ * Check out the online interactive
Dc(f) = ∞ exercises for more examples:
g b(h)} = 1+ ∞ = ∞
Dc(h) = min{cbc,b+D h i http://gaia.cs.umass.edu/kurose_ross/interactive/
Dc(g) = ∞
Dc(i) = min{cc,b+Db(i)} = 1+ ∞ = ∞
Dc(h) = ∞
Network Layer: 5-48
Dc(i) = ∞
 Distance vector example:
DV in b:

computation Db(a) = 8
Db(c) = 1
Db(f) = ∞
Db(g) = ∞
DV in e:
Db(d) = ∞ Db(h) = ∞
DV in d:
Db(e) = 1 Db(i) = ∞ De(a) = ∞
Dc(a) = 1
De(b) = 1
Dc(b) = ∞ a b c De(c) = ∞
Dc(c) = ∞ 8 1
De(d) = 1
Dc(d) = 0
t=1 Dc(e) = 1
1
Q: what is new DV computed in e at
1t=1?
De(e) = 0
De(f) = 1
 e receives DVs Dc(f) = ∞
De(g) = ∞
from b, d, f, h Dc(g) = 1
De(h) = 1
Dc(h) = ∞
De(i) = ∞
Dc(i) = ∞ d compute
e f DV in f:
1 1
DV in h: Dc(a) = ∞
Dc(a) = ∞ Dc(b) = ∞
Dc(b) = ∞ Dc(c) = ∞
Dc(c) = ∞ 1 1 1
Dc(d) = ∞
Dc(d) = ∞ Dc(e) = 1
Dc(e) = 1 Dc(f) = 0
Dc(f) = ∞ g h i Dc(g) = ∞
1 1
Dc(g) = 1 Dc(h) = ∞
Dc(h) = 0 Dc(i) = 1 Network Layer: 5-49
Distance vector: state
information diffusion
Iterative communication, computation steps diffuses information through network:
t=0 c’s state at t=0 is at c only
a b c
8 1
c’s state at t=0 has propagated to b, and
t=1 may influence distance vector computations
up to 1 hop away, i.e., at b 1 1 t=1
t=2
c’s state at t=0 may now influence distance
t=2 vector computations up to 2 hops away, i.e.,
d e f
at b and now at a, e as well 1 1

c’s state at t=0 may influence distance vector

t=3
computations up to 3 hops away, i.e., at d, f, h 1 1 1 t=3

c’s state at t=0 may influence distance vector

t=4 g
computations up to 4 hops away, i.e., at g, i 1
h 1
i
t=4
 Distance vector: link cost
changes
link cost changes: 1
y
4 1
 node detects local link cost change
x z
 updates routing info, recalculates local DV 50

 if DV changes, notify neighbors

t0 : y detects link-cost change, updates its DV, informs its neighbors.

“good news t1 : z receives update from y, updates its DV, computes new least cost
travels fast”
to x , sends its neighbors its DV.
t2 : y receives z’s update, updates its DV. y’s least costs do not
change, so y does not send a message to z.
Distance vector: link cost
changes
link cost changes: 60
y
4 1
 node detects local link cost change
x z
 “bad news travels slow” – count-to-infinity problem: 50

• y sees direct link to x has new cost 60, but z has said it has a path at cost of 5. So
y computes “my new cost to x will be 6, via z); notifies z of new cost of 6 to x.
• z learns that path to x via y has new cost 6, so z computes “my new cost to
x will be 7 via y), notifies y of new cost of 7 to x.
• y learns that path to x via z has new cost 7, so y computes “my new cost to
x will be 8 via y), notifies z of new cost of 8 to x.
• z learns that path to x via y has new cost 8, so z computes “my new cost to
x will be 9 via y), notifies y of new cost of 9 to x.
…
 see text for solutions. Distributed algorithms are tricky!
Comparison of LS and DV
algorithms
message complexity robustness: what happens if router
LS: n routers, O(n2) messages sent malfunctions, or is compromised?
DV: exchange between neighbors; LS:
convergence time varies • router can advertise incorrect link cost
• each router computes only its own
speed of convergence table
LS: O(n2) algorithm, O(n2) messages DV:
• may have oscillations
• DV router can advertise incorrect path
DV: convergence time varies cost (“I have a really low-cost path to
• may have routing loops everywhere”): black-holing
• count-to-infinity problem
• each router’s DV is used by others:
error propagate thru network
Day3

Network Layer: 5-54

Traffic engineering: difficult with traditional
routing
5
3
2 v w 5

u 2
3
1 z
1
2
x 1 y

Q: what if network operator wants to split u-to-z

traffic along uvwz and uxyz (load balancing)?
A: can’t do it (or need a new routing algorithm)

Network Layer: 5-55

Traffic engineering: difficult with traditional
routing
5
3
2 v w 5

u 2
3
1 z
1
2
x 1 y

Q: what if w wants to route blue and red traffic differently from w to z?

A: can’t do it (with destination-based forwarding, and LS, DV routing)
We learned in Chapter 4 that generalized forwarding and SDN can
be used to achieve any routing desired
Network Layer: 5-56
 Software defined networking (SDN)
3. controlplane functions
4. programmable routing
access
… load
control balance
external to data-plane
control switches
applications Remote Controller

control
plane

data
plane

CA 2. control, data plane

CA CA CA CA
separation

1: generalized “flow-based”
forwarding (e.g., OpenFlow)
Network Layer: 5-57
Software defined networking (SDN)
network-control
Data-plane switches: applications
…
routing
 fast, simple, commodity switches
access load
implementing generalized data-plane control balance
forwarding (Section 4.4) in hardware control
 flow (forwarding) table computed, northbound API plane

installed under controller supervision SDN Controller

 API for table-based switch control (network operating system)

(e.g., OpenFlow)
southbound API
• defines what is controllable, what is not
 protocol for communicating with data
controller (e.g., OpenFlow) plane

SDN-controlled switches
Network Layer: 5-58
Software defined networking (SDN)
network-control
SDN controller (network OS): applications
…
routing
 maintain network state
access load
information control balance

 interacts with network control control

plane
northbound API
applications “above” via
northbound API SDN Controller
(network operating system)
 interacts with network switches
“below” via southbound API southbound API

 implemented as distributed system

data
for performance, scalability, fault- plane

tolerance, robustness
SDN-controlled switches
Network Layer: 5-59
Software defined networking (SDN)
network-control
network-control apps: applications
…
routing
 “brains” of control: implement load
access
control functions using lower- control balance

level services, API provided by northbound API

control
plane
SDN controller
 unbundled: can be provided by SDN Controller
(network operating system)
3rd party: distinct from routing
vendor, or SDN controller southbound API

data
plane

SDN-controlled switches
Network Layer: 5-60
Components of SDN controller
routing access load
control balance

interface layer to network Interface, abstractions for network control apps

control apps: abstractions API network

graph
RESTful
API
… intent

network-wide state statistics … flow tables

SDN
management : state of
networks links, switches,
Network-wide distributed, robust state management
controller
services: a distributed database Link-state info host info … switch info

communication: communicate OpenFlow … SNMP

between SDN controller and Communication to/from controlled devices
controlled switches

Network Layer: 5-61