Chapter No.

05 –
Internal Memory
Lecture – 10
01-05-2018

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Topics to Cover
Semiconductor Main Memory
• Organization
• DRAM and SRAM
• Types of ROM

• Main memory is the internal memory, and each location in main

memory has a unique address.
• More processes can be maintained in Main Memory which increases
effective use of CPU.
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5.1 Semiconductor Main Memory
• In earlier computers, the most common form of
random-access storage for computer main-memory employed an
array of doughnut-shaped ferromagnetic loops referred to as cores.
• Hence, main-memory is often referred to as core, even to this day.
• However, the advent of, and advantages of, microelectronics has long
ended the days of magnetic core memory.
• Today, the use of semiconductor chips for main-memory is almost
universal.
• Key aspects of this technology are explored in this section.

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Main-Memory ‘Organization’
• The basic element of a semiconductor memory is the memory cell.
• All ‘semiconductor memory cells’ share the properties listed below:
1. They exhibit two stable (or semistable) states, which can be used to
represent binary 1 and 0. (Semistable state = memory needs to be
refreshed to keep its state).
2. They are capable of being written into (at least once), to ‘set the
state’.
3. They are capable of being read (multiple times), to ‘sense the state’.

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Transistors
• For example, a memory chip contains hundreds of millions or even
billions of transistors, each of which can be switched on or off
individually.
• Since each transistor can be in two distinct states, it can store two
different numbers, zero and one. With billions of transistors, a chip
can store billions of zeros and ones, and almost as many ordinary
numbers and letters (or characters, as we call them).

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Memory Cell Operation (Fig. Next)
• The cell has ‘three functional terminals’ capable of carrying an
electrical signal.
1) The select terminal 2) The control terminal 3) The Data
terminal
1. The Select terminal: selects a memory cell for a ‘read or write
operation’.
2. The Control terminal: indicates ‘read or write’.
3. For writing: the other terminal provides an electrical signal that
‘sets the state’ of the cell to 1 or 0.
4. For reading: that terminal is used for ‘output of the cell’s state’.
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Figure 5.1 Memory Cell Operation
(Operation) (Operation)

(Address) (Data input) (Address) (Data output)

Note: Memory is addressable at ‘byte/word’ level, NOT ‘bit/cell’ level. 7

Table 5.1 Semiconductor Memory
Types (R-A)

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Characteristics of Random-Access
Memory (RAM)
• The most common type of semiconductor memory is referred to as
random-access memory (RAM).
• The following distinguishing characteristics of RAM are listed below:
1. RAM is of random-access type, means that it is possible both to
read data from the memory and to write new data into the memory
easily and rapidly.
2. Both the reading and writing are accomplished through the use of
electrical signals.
3. RAM is volatile, that is, it must be provided with a constant power, If
the power is interrupted, then the data are lost.
4. Thus, RAM can be used only as temporary storage.
5. The two types of RAM used in computers are DRAM and SRAM. 9
1. Characteristics of ‘Dynamic RAM’
(DRAM)
1. A dynamic RAM (DRAM) is made with cells that store data as
charge on capacitors. (a ‘capacitor’ is an electric device that ‘stores
charge’)
2. The presence or absence of charge in a capacitor is interpreted as a
binary 1 or 0.
3. Because capacitor have a natural tendency to discharge, dynamic
RAMs require charge refreshing to maintain data storage. (Dis-Adv)
4. The term dynamic refers to this tendency of the stored charge to
leak away, even with power continuously applied.
5. So with DRAMs, a charge refreshing circuitry is required.
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DRAM Cell
• A DRAM cell is simply made up of a
transistor and a storage capacitor. (Base)
• The address line is activated (ON)
when the bit value from this cell is to (collector) (emitter)
be read or written.
DRAM cell, stores one bit
• The transistor acts as a switch, that is (Charged, 1
or
closed (allowing current to flow) if a Discharged)
voltage is applied to the address line
and open (no current flows) if no (Data line)
voltage is present on the address line.
‘Address line’ is ON, then transistor is ON, and connects the capacitor to the ‘Bit-line’ (B).
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DRAM Read and Write Operation
• For the write operation:
1. A voltage signal is applied to the bit-line (B); a high voltage
represents 1, and a low voltage represents 0.
2. A signal is then applied to the address line, allowing a charge to be
transferred to the capacitor.
• For the read operation:
1. When the address line is selected, the transistor turns on and the
charge stored on the capacitor is fed out onto a bit-line.
2. The ‘sense amplifier’ compares the bit-line value to a reference
value and determines if the cell contains a logic 1 or a logic 0.
3. The readout discharges the capacitor, whose value must be restored.
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2. Characteristics of ‘Static RAM’
(SRAM)
1. A static RAM (SRAM) is a digital device that stores the bits as
ON/OFF switches.
2. In a SRAM, binary values are stored using traditional flip-flop logic-
gate configurations (flip-flop is a sequential circuit that stores a bit).
3. A static RAM will hold its data as long as power is supplied to it, no
charge will leak. (Advantage)
4. Therefore no charge refreshing circuitry is required in an SRAM.
• Note: Flip-flop is a bistable device, that exists in one of the two states,
and in the absence of input, remains in that state, so a 1-bit memory.
• Flip-flop has two complemented outputs, generally labelled Q and Q.
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 Skip

SRAM Cell (Both states are stable as long as the ‘dc voltage’ is applied)
• Transistors (T1, T2, T3, T4) arrangement
gives two stable logic states. Logic State 1
ON = = OFF
• Logic State 1
• C1 high, C2 low = High Low =
• T1 T4 off, T2 T3 on
(Switch) (Switch)
• Logic State 0
• C2 high, C1 low
OFF = = ON
• T2 T3 off, T1 T4 on
• ‘Address line’ controls transistors T5
and T6 which act as ‘switch’.
• T5 & T6 allow read or write operation. SRAM Advantage: No refresh is needed to retain14data.
SRAM Read and Write Operation
• For the write operation, the desired bit value is applied to line B,
while its compliment is applied to line B. Address line is then selected.
• This forces the four transistors (T1, T2, T3, T4) into the proper state. (1)
• For a read operation, the bit value is read from line B. Provide Adress.

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SRAM versus DRAM
Dynamic RAM (DRAM) Static RAM (SRAM)
1. A DRAM is a volatile-memory. 1. An SRAM is a volatile-memory.
2. Memory cell is simpler to build and smaller. 2. Memory cell is more complex in construction.
3. Smaller DRAM cell means more cells per unit 3. A SRAM cell has larger per bit area, so
area and dense memory. (more Kbs stored / memory capacity is small. (less Kbs stored /
unit area) unit area)
4. DRAM requires the supporting ‘refresh 4. SRAM does not require the ‘refresh circuitry’,
circuitry’ due to charge leak. no charge leaks away.
5. DRAM memory is less expensive per bit cost. 5. SRAM memory is more expensive per bit.
6. DRAM is used for large memory 6. SRAM memory is faster to access and thus is
requirements, e.g. main memory (RAM), and used as ‘Cache memory’.
is slower to access.
7. DRAM is an ‘analog memory’, a ‘capacitor’ 7. SRAM is a ‘digital device’, that uses flip-flops
can store any charge value, a threshold as ‘switch’ to store binary 1 or 0.
determines stored 1 or 0.

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Characteristics of Read-Only
Memory (ROM)
1. A read-only memory (ROM) contains a permanent pattern of data
that can not be changed.
2. A ROM is non-volatile; that is, no power source is required to
maintain the bit values in memory.
3. While it is possible to only read a ROM, it is not possible to write
new data into it.
4. Other potential applications of ROM include: library subroutines
(for frequently wanted functions), system programs (BIOS), and
function tables, all of them reside in ROM.
5. The advantage of ROM is that the data or program is permanently
in main-memory and need never be loaded from a secondary
storage device. 17
Programmable ROM (PROM)
• In a ROM, the data is actually wired into the chip as part of the
fabrication process (written during manufacture, fabricating/masking)

• The programmable ROM (PROM) is non-volatile and is written into /

programmable only once.

• Special equipment is required for the writing or “programming”

process. (called photolithography)

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Types of ROM
• Read-mostly memory, which is useful for applications in which read
operations are far more frequent than write operations but for which
non-volatile storage is required.
• There are three common forms of read-mostly memory:
1) EPROM 2) EEPROM 3) Flash memory.
1. Erasable programmable read-only memory (EPROM): is erased by
UV. But all the storage cells must be erased to the same initial state.
2. Electrically erasable programmable read-only memory (EEPROM):
take much longer to write than read, can be written without erasing
prior contents.
3. Flash memory: provides flexibility to erase whole memory in blocks.
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 (Chapter 5)
Preparatory Questions

(Slide-04)
(Slide-09)
(Slide-10 & 13)

(Slide-16)
(Slide-16, Point-7)
(Slide-17)
(Slide-19)

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