Ethiopian Institute of Technology- Mekelle

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering

Electrical Machine
ECEg4221
Chapter-4
DC MACHINES
D.C winding, dynamic equations, control aspect.

Darge Meressa ( Electrical Power Eng.)Electrical Power Engineering Stream

2016/17
 Dc Machines Windings

Introduction
• DC machines are highly versatile energy conversion devices.
• It is preferred for loads requiring high starting, high
accelerating and decelerating torques.
• It is suitable for drives requiring wide range speed control and
quick reversals.
• Due to such inherent characteristics, it possesses high degree
of flexibility and widely used in industry, particularly for tough
jobs.
• A dc machine can operate as a generator and as a motor. i.e.
one and the same machine can operate as motor and as a
generator; it is needed only to change the direction of power
flow.
• As all other rotating electrical machines, it consists magnetic,
electrical, thermal and insulation circuits.
 Dc Machines windings

4.1 Dc Machines Windings

• Please, recall some common winding terms from previous lectures like: - Conductor,
turn, coil, coil side, pole pitch, coil pitch, chorded coil etc.

Fig 4.1
 Dc Machines windings

• Closed winding: - This type of winding is used for all types of dc machines
and for ac commutator machines.

• Closed windings are always double layer windings.

• Each coil in double layer winding has its one coil side in top layer and its
other coil side in bottom layer.

• The simple closed windings are of two types.

- Simplex lap winding
- simplex wave winding
 Dc Machines windings

• From the construction point of view ,the difference between the two
windings is the manner of connecting the coil ends to the commutator
segments.

• In simplex lap winding, the two coil ends of a coil are connected to the two
adjacent commutator segments.

• In simplex lap winding, each commutator segment has two coil ends
connected to it. ( one is from top coil side and the second from the lower coil
side.)

• In simplex wave winding, the two coil ends of a coil are bent in opposite
direction and connected to commutator segments which are approximately
two pole-pitches
(i.e. 360o electrical) apart.

• In wave windings also, each commutator segment has two coil ends
connected to it.
 Dc Machines windings

Closed winding Terms

• Generally , it is agreed that front of armature denotes

commutator end and back of armature means other side of
commutator.

• Back pitch (Yb) – The distance between the top and bottom coil
sides of one coil, measured at the back of the armature. It may
be expressed in terms of teeth, slots, or coil sides. It is always
odd number. i.e. from the figures below, it can be seen that: -

Yb = 8-1 = 7 ; 10-3 = 7 ; 12-5 = 7 (fig. 4.2- lap winding)

Yb = 10-1 = 9; 26-17 = 9 ( fig.4.3 - wave winding)

 Dc Machines windings

• Front Pitch (Yf): - The distance between the two coil-sides connected to the
same commutator segment. It is always an odd number. (odd numbered top coil
and even numbered bottom coil are connected together).
• Winding Pitch (Yw): - The distance between the two consecutive and similar top,
or bottom coil sides, as the winding progresses. It is expressed in terms of coil
sides.

Thus, For simplex lap winding Yw = Yb-Yf

For simplex wave winding Yw = Yb+Yf

Note that winding pitch Yw is always even, because it is equal to either the
difference or the sum of two odd numbers Yb and Yf.

• Commutator Pitch (Yc): - The distance between the two commutator segments,
to which the two ends of one coil are joined. It expressed in terms of
commutator segments.
- For simplex lap winding yc is always 1; where as for simplex wave winding Yc is
almost equal to 2-pole pitches.
Dc Machines windings

Fig. 4.2
Dc Machines windings

Fig. 4.3
 Dc Machines windings

4.1.1 Simplex Lap Winding

• The term simplex refers to the fact that coil 1 is placed in the slots
adjacent to coil 2, and coil 2 is placed in the slots adjacent to coil 3
and so on.
• Let the number of armature coils be C. The number of poles be P.
Since each coil has two coil sides, total number of coil sides is 2C
The back pitch Yb, almost equal to pole pitch is
Yb = coil sides per pole ± K

2C
Yb  K
P
Where, K is a number (integer or fraction) added to 2C/P to make Y b an odd integer.
 Dc Machines windings

• An armature winding may be either progressive or retrogressive

• In progressive lap windings, if coil 1 is placed first, then coil 2 is
placed in slot to the right of slots occupied by coil 1, coil 3 in
slots to the right of coil 2 and so on. Thus as seen from the
commutator side, progressive lap winding progresses to the
right. Therefore, for progressive lap winding, the winding pitch
is: -

Yw Yb  Y f From the following figure, Yw = (8-1)-(8-3)=+2

Yc 1
 Dc Machines windings

C-1 C+1
C C-1 C C+1

a) coil in b) a coil in
progressive retrogressive
rotor winding rotor winding.

Fig. 4.4
 Dc Machines windings

In retrogressive lap winding, coil 2 is placed in slots to the left of coil 1, coil 3 in
slots to the left of coil 2 and so on. As seen from the commutator, it progresses
to the left. Therefore, for simplex retrogressive lap winding, the winding pitch
is:-
From the figure,

Yw Yb  Y f
Yc  1 Yw 8  1  8   1 7  9  2

Hence, for simplex lap winding,

Yw = ± 2
Yc = ± 1
The +ve sign is used for progressive lap winding and
–ve for retrogressive winding.
 Example

C S 12
2C 24
Yb  K  1 7 or 5
P 4 A polar-winding diagram of 4 pole and 12 coils
Yc 1
Fig 4.5
• An examination of the winding diagram of fig. 4.5 reveals
that currents leave at the commutator segments 1, 7 and
enter at the commutator segments 4;10. Thus, four brushes
A,B,C,D should be placed.

• From brush A, one parallel path is through coils a, b, c, to

brush B and the second parallel path is through l, k, j to
brush D. Similarly, from brush C to D through its path. Thus
there are four parallel paths for a 4-pole machine.

• In general, for a simplex lap winding, number of parallel

paths a is equal to the number of poles p. Usually, lap
windings are named as parallel windings.
Example: A progressive simplex lap winding is to be
designed for a 4-pole, 14 slot, 2 coil sides per slot dc
armature. Obtain the following.
a) winding table
b) winding diagram in radial form
Simplex Wave Winding

• As seen in fig. 4.3, one end of coil 1 is connected to segment 1 and its other end is
connected to segment 11, which is approximately 360 o electrical away from segment
1.
• Thus, for a 4-pole machine, it can be seen that, there are two commutator pitches Y c
along the commutator periphery; and
• Since for double layer windings the number of commutator segments is equal to the
number of coils, and the last coil end of coil 2 must be connected to a segment either
ahead ( for progressive winding) or before (for retrogressive winding) segment 1, the
following relation can be written.

2Yc C 1
4
Yc C 1
2
• For a six pole machine, there are 3 commutator pitches.

3Yc C 1
6
Yc C 1
2
• Hence, for a P-pole machine there are P/2 commutator pitches

P
Yc C 1
2

• Consequently the commutator pitch for a simplex wave

winding is: -

C 1
Yc 
P
2
• Furthermore, there are two winding pitches for wave windings. Since the next coil-side
connected to segment 2 must have its top coil-side numbered 3, the relation between
winding pitch Yw and coil sides 2C for a 4-pole machine is: -

2Yw 2C 2 or
4
Yw 2C 2
2
For a 6-pole machine there are three winding pitches; i.e.
6
Yw 2C 2
2
Consequently, for a p-pole machine,
P
Yw 2C 2
2
Thus, winding pitch for simplex wave winding is: -
2C 2
Yw  2Yc
P
2
• In simplex wave winding arrangement, if there are P poles on the machine,
then there are P/2 coils in series between adjacent commutator segments.

• If the last coil (P/2th ) is connected to the segment a head of the first coil, the
winding is progressive ; and if it is connected to the segment behind the first
coil, the winding is retrogressive.

• In simplex wave winding there are only two current paths. The brushes in
such a machine will be located a full pole pitch a part from each other. (fig.
4.8). Thus wave winding known as series winding.

• In general, for any number of poles, a simplex wave winding has always two
parallel paths and a minimum of two sets of brushes.

• However, in case larger currents are to be handled, the number of brush-sets

may be made equal to the number of poles; where all positive and negative
brushes are connected together respectively as in lap windings.
Fig. 4.8

progressive simplex wave winding for 4- pole, 11 slots, double layer

• Multiplex windings

• In some cases the number of parallel circuits may not be adequate enough
from design considerations.

• For example, in a 10 pole commutator machine, simplex wave winding gives

only 2 parallel paths whereas simplex lap winding results in 10 parallel paths.
In case if the parallel paths required are in between 2 & 10 or more than 10,
then multiplex windings are emplyoed.

• In duplex lap winding, the distance between the segments to which the two
ends of one coil are connected is 2. i.e. Yc = ± 2

• In triplex lap winding, the distance between the segments to which the two
ends of one coil are connected is 3 and, therefore, Yc = ± 3
• In duplex wave winding, the last coil-end after travelling once around the
commutator, is connected to two segments behind or ahead of the starting point.
C 2
Yc 
P
2
• In triplex wave winding, the last coil-end after travelling once around the
commutator, is connected to 3 segments behind or ahead of starting point.
C 3
Yc 
P
2
• In general, if m denotes “plex” of the multiplex winding,
C m
Yc m For lap winding; Yc 
P
For wave winding
2
• The number of parallel paths a in multiplex lap winding is ;a = mp and in wave
winding, a = 2m. Multiplex wave windings are rarely used in dc machines.
Equalizer Rings

• If the emfs generated in the various parallel paths of lap windings are not
equal there will exist circulating current. The existence of circulating
current in lap connected machines is due to:-
i) The air gap under different poles may not be the same due to wear of ball
bearings, etc.

ii) The joints between pole cores and yokes or between pole cores and pole
faces may not be identical for all poles.

ii) The different reluctances for each magnetic path may also be due to the
impurities or imperfections in the materials of magnetic system.

To observe clearly the effect of circulating current, consider the following fig.
 To illustrate effects of circulating current,
Consider a 4-pole lap connected commutator
Machine.
• suppose rated current is 200A
• For equal emfs generated in parallel paths,
all 4 brushes handle equally 100 A each.
• Assume the air gap under N1,S1 became
more than that of N2, S2 due to wear.
• consequently, different amount of flux under
each pole, and results in different amount of
generated emfs.
• Let emf in parallel paths B1B2 and B3B2 be
Fig 4.9
48 v and that in path B1B4 and B3B4 be 52V.

a) Equal distribution of • Then voltage B2B4 will be: -

Armature current for
Equal emfs.
V2V4 = -48+52 = 4V
• If Rarm for each parallel path is 0.1 ohm; then
 I = 4/0.1 = 40 A will flow from B4 to B2
and the resultant current flow will be as
seen in fig 4.9 (C).

b) Circulating current due to unequal emfs.

 Brush B4 is thus overloaded
And may cause sparking.
Further more, circulating
Current results in overheating of the
armature.

c) Resultant armature current distribution due to unequal emfs.

• In order to avoid overheating and sparking at brushes, Equalizer Rings are provided.
• It is a low resistance conductor wire, which connects points in the armature at the
same potential.
• The function of equalizer rings are;

- To save the brushes from handling the circulating currents.

- To reduce the magnetic flux unbalance that cause the
potential difference in various parallel paths.

• Though the circulating currents

Are still present, the brushes are
saved from handling them.
• The voltage B3B2 and B1B2 is,
48+20x0.1 = 50v
• Voltage B1B4 and B3B4 is,
52-20x0.1 = 50v

Fig 4.10
 • In case there is flux unbalance in the
armature coils expected to be in
equipotential points (points 1 &2),or
(3 & 4) fig 4.11.; these points will be
in different potentials and circulating
current will start flowing through the
rings and armature coils, with out
flowing through the brushes.
• An equalizer ring connects as many
coils as there are pole pairs.

• The distance between coils having the

same potential is 2-pole pitches. i.e.

C 2C
Yeq 2 pole  pitch   coils
Fig.4.11 P P
2
where, Yeq – equipotential pitch. It is
Method of connecting
Equalizer rings. the distance between two adjacent
Equipotential points.
• Total number of tapping points = no. of equalizer rings x pole pairs.
Ntp = rxp/2
Where, r – number of equalizer rings.

• Distance between adjacent tapping points

C 2C Yeq
Ytp   
P rP r
r
2

Where, C – total number of coils

Where, Ytp is pitch of tapping points in terms of coils. Usually

Equalizer rings are provided at the back of the armature.

Equalizer rings are not required for simplex wave windings

Even if there is magnetic unbalance. It is due to the fact that
Coil sides in two parallel paths are distributed under all the
Poles so that both the parallel circuits are affected equally and
there is no need of equalizer rings in simplex wave windings.
• Advantages of wave winding over lap winding

i) A wave winding requires only two brushes ( or 2 sets of brushes)

whereas lap winding requires brushes equal to the number of poles.
A wave winding may be fitted with as many brushes as the number of
poles. In such cases, if one or more brushes have poor contact with the
commutator, the machine continues operating satisfactorily whereas
this is not true for lap connected machines.

ii) Lap connected machines require equalizer rings for obtaining better
commutation, whereas wave windings do not require.

iii) Since lap connected machines require brushes and equalizers, they are
more costly.
• Lap windings are used on low voltage medium power ( 50 to 500 KW) and high power
above 500 KW machines.
• Wave windings are used on high-voltage low-power ( less than 50KW) and medium
power machines.
• For armature currents more than 400 A, lap winding is the only choice.
 Dynamic equation of dc machines
• Introduction
• A motor generally drives a load ( machine) through some transmission system.
• While motor always rotates, the load may rotate or undergo translational motion, or
both simultaneously.
• Load speed may be different from that of the motor.
• Representation of motor-load system may seem the following.

Fig. 4.12 Motor and load torque

• Motor-load system can be described by the following fundamental torque equation

(Equation of motion).

d d m dJ
T  TL  J m  J  m
dt dt dt
 For drives with constant inertia, (dJ/dt) = 0; thus,
Where, T= developed motor torque

d m TL = Load torque referred to motor shaft.

T TL  J J = polar moment of inertia of
dt motor load system referred to motor
shaft
ωm = angular velocity of motor shaft

This equation shows that, torque developed by the motor is

Counter balanced by a load torque TL and a dynamic torque
J(dω/dt).

Torque component J(dω/dt) is called the dynamic torque

because it appears during the transient operation.

Moment of inertia of a drive may be expressed as;

2 Where, r and D – radius and diameter of
GD
J mr 2  kg  m 2 gyration, respectively
4g G – weight, N
g – 9.81 m/c2 accele. Due to gravity
If a hoop and a disk of equal mass and radius, as shown in the picture, are placed at the
top of an inclined plane and released, which will get to the bottom of the ramp first?
Example – 1 Disc & Hoop

The moment of inertia of an object provides

resistance to a rotational force in the same
way the mass of an object resists linear
acceleration.

If we inspect the moment of inertia for the

disk and the hoop in the image left, we find
that the disk has half the moment of inertia of
a hoop of equal mass. Since it has less
resistance to rotation, it will speed up quicker
and get to the bottom of the ramp first.

Fig 4.13
• Analysis of the equation shows that;
- When T > TL, dω/dt > 0. i.e. the drive undergo acceleration.
- When T < TL, dω/dt < 0. i.e. the drive will undergo deceleration.
Deceleration occurs also at negative values of motor torque ( i.e.
during braking operation).
- When T = TL, dω/dt = 0, i.e the drive will run at a steady state
speed.
• Speed –torque conventions and multi quadrant operations.
• For considerations of multi quadrant operation of drives, let us see suitable
conventions about the signs of torques and speed.
• Motor speed is considered positive when rotating in the forward
direction. For drives which operate only in one direction, forward
speed will be their normal speed.
• In loads involving up-and-down motions, the speed of motor which
causes upward motion is considered forward motion.
• For reversible drives, forward speed is chosen arbitrarily. Then the
opposite direction gives reverse speed.

• Motor torque is considered positive, when it produces acceleration

(positive rate of change of speed) in forward direction.
• Positive load torque is opposite in direction to the positive motor
torque.
• Motor torque is considered negative if it produces deceleration.

• A motor operates in two modes, Motoring and Braking.

• In motoring, it converts electrical energy to mechanical energy, which
supports its motion.
• In braking, it works as a generator; opposing motion.

• A motor can provide motoring and braking operations for both

forward and reverse directions.
•The inertia or dynamic torque appears when the speed changes from one
value to another. If the drive is undergoing acceleration, this torque
opposes drive motion. If the drive is being braked, supports motion. The
inertia torque both in magnitude and in sign, is determined as the algebraic
difference between the motor torque and the load torque. In general the
torque equation is written as;
d
T TL  J
dt
Power developed by a motor is given by the
product of speed and torque. P = Txw

In quadrant I, power Developed is positive;

machine works as a motor supplying
Mechanical energy.

In quadrant II, power is negative . Hence the

Fig 4.14 machine works under Braking opposing the
motion.
Multiquadrant operation of drives
• Transient conditions and dc motor dynamics
• Starting, braking, reversing, speed changing and load changing
are transient operations ,which commonly occur in an industrial
drive.
• It is important to know how speed, torque, and current of the
driving motor change with time under these transient
operations. Furthermore, it is essential to determine energy
losses and time taken for the completion of the transient
process.
• This information is needed for selecting suitable rating of the
motor, nature and type of control equipment and its operation
schedule, and type of protective devices and their settings.
 Assignment 3: Presentation
Group one – Group five: Operating characteristics of D.C Generator
1. Separately excited generators
2. Shunt generators
3. Series generators
4. Compound generators
5. Effect of speed on external characteristics
Group six– Group eight : Operating characteristics of D.C Motors
6. D.C Shunt motor
7. D.C series motor
8.D.C compound motor
Group nine– Group ten :D.C Motor starting
9.Shunt and compound motor starters
10. Series motor starters
Group eleven – Group thirteen : Speed control of D.C motors
11. Speed control by varying the armature circuit resistance
12. Speed control by varying field flux
13. Speed control by varying the armature terminal voltage