Chapter 1

Introduction to Electronics

Microelectronic Circuit Design

Richard C. Jaeger
Travis N. Blalock

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 Chapter Goals

• Explore the history of electronics.

• Quantify the impact of integrated circuit
technologies.
• Describe classification of electronic signals.
• Review circuit notation and theory.
• Describe problem solving approach

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 The Start of the Modern Electronics Era

Bardeen, Shockley, and Brattain at The first germanium bipolar

Bell Labs - Brattain and Bardeen transistor. Roughly 50 years later,
invented the bipolar transistor in 1947. electronics account for 10% (4 trillion
dollars) of the world GDP.

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 Electronics Milestones
1874 Braun invents the solid-state 1958 Integrated circuit developed by
rectifier. Kilby and Noyce
1906 DeForest invents triode vacuum 1961 First commercial IC from Fairchild
tube. Semiconductor
1907-1927 1963 IEEE formed from merger or IRE
First radio circuits de-veloped from and AIEE
diodes and triodes. 1968 First commercial IC opamp
1925 Lilienfeld field-effect device patent 1970 One transistor DRAM cell invented
filed. by Dennard at IBM.
1947 Bardeen and Brattain at Bell 1971 4004 Intel microprocessor
Laboratories invent bipolar introduced.
transistors. 1978 First commercial 1-kilobit memory.
1952 Commercial bipolar transistor 1974 8080 microprocessor introduced.
production at Texas Instruments.
1984 Megabit memory chip introduced.
1956 Bardeen, Brattain, and Shockley 2000 Alferov, Kilby, and Kromer share
receive Nobel prize.
Nobel prize

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 Evolution of Electronic Devices

Vacuum Discrete
Tubes Transistors

SSI and MSI VLSI

Integrated Surface-Mount
Circuits Circuits

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 Microelectronics Proliferation

• The integrated circuit was invented in 1958.

• World transistor production has more than doubled every
year for the past twenty years.
• Every year, more transistors are produced than in all
previous years combined.
• Approximately 109 transistors were produced in a recent
year.
• Roughly 50 transistors for every ant in the world .

*Source: Gordon Moore’s Plenary address at the 2003 International Solid

State Circuits Conference.

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 Device Feature Size

• Feature size reductions

enabled by process
innovations.
• Smaller features lead to
more transistors per unit
area and therefore higher
density.
ITRS: The International
Technology Roadmap for
Semiconductors
ISSCC:The International Solid-State Circuits
Conference

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 Signal Types
• Analog signals take on
continuous values -
typically current or
voltage.
• Digital signals appear at
discrete levels. Usually
we use binary signals
which utilize only two
levels.
• One level is referred to as
logical 1 and logical 0 is
assigned to the other level.

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 Analog and Digital Signals

• Analog signals are • After digitization, the

continuous in time and continuous analog signal
voltage or current. (Charge becomes a set of discrete
can also be used as a signal values, typically separated
conveyor.) by fixed time intervals.

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 Notational Conventions

• Total signal = DC bias + time varying signal

vT VDC  vsig
iT I DC  isig
• Resistance and conductance - R and G with same
subscripts will denote reciprocal quantities. Most
convenient form will be used within expressions.
1 1
Gx  and g 
Rx r
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 Dependent Sources

Controlled Sources.
(a)Voltage-controlled current source (VCCS).
(b)Current-controlled current source (CCCS).
(c)Voltage-controlled voltage source (VCVS).
(d)Current-controlled voltage source (CCVS).

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 Problem-Solving Approach
• Make a clear problem statement.
• List known information and given data.
• Define the unknowns required to solve the problem.
• List assumptions.
• Develop an approach to the solution.
• Perform the analysis based on the approach.
• Check the results.
– Has the problem been solved? Have all the unknowns been found?
– Is the math correct?
• Evaluate the solution.
– Do the results satisfy reasonableness constraints?
– Are the values realizable?
• Use computer-aided analysis to verify hand analysis

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 What are Reasonable Numbers?
• If the power suppy is +-10 V, a calculated DC bias value of 15 V (not
within the range of the power supply voltages) is unreasonable.
• Generally, our bias current levels will be between 1 uA and a few
hundred milliamps.
• A calculated bias current of 3.2 amps is probably unreasonable and
should be reexamined.
• Peak-to-peak ac voltages should be within the power supply voltage
range.
• A calculated component value that is unrealistic should be rechecked.
For example, a resistance equal to 0.013 ohms.
• Given the inherent variations in most electronic components, three
significant digits are adequate for representation of results. Three
significant digits are used throughout the text.

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 Circuit Theory Review: Voltage Division

v1 i sR1 and v 2 i sR2

Applying KVL to the loop,

v s v1  v 2 i s (R1  R2 )

vs
and is 
R1  R2
 Combining these yields the basic voltage division formula:
R1 R2
v1 v s v 2 v s
 R1  R2 R1  R2

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Circuit Theory Review: Voltage Division
(cont.)
Using the derived equations
with the indicated values,
8 k
v1 10 V 8.00 V
8 k  2 k
2 k
v 2 10 V 2.00 V
8 k  2 k

Design Note: Voltage division only applies when both

resistors are carrying the same current.

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 Circuit Theory Review: Current Division
vs vs
i s i1  i 2 where i1  i
and 2 
R1 R2
Combining and solving for vs,
1 R1 R2
v s is is  is R1 || R2 
1 1 R1  R2

R1 R2

Combining these yields the basic current division formula:

R2 R1
i1 i s and i 2 i s
R1  R2 R1  R2

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 Circuit Theory Review: Current
Division (cont.)
Using the derived equations
with the indicated values,

3 k
i1 5 mA 3.00 mA
2 k  3 k
2 k
i2 5 mA 2.00 mA
2 k  3 k

Design Note: Current division only applies when the same

voltage appears across both resistors.

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 Circuit Theory Review: Thevenin and
Norton Equivalent Circuits

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 Circuit Theory Review: Find the
Thevenin Equivalent Voltage
Problem: Find the Thevenin
equivalent voltage at the output.
Solution:
• Known Information and Given
Data: Circuit topology and values
in figure.
• Unknowns: Thevenin equivalent
voltage vth.
• Approach: Voltage source vth is
defined as the output voltage with
no load.
• Assumptions: None.
• Analysis: Next slide…

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 Circuit Theory Review: Find the
Thevenin Equivalent Voltage
Applying KCL at the output node,
vo  vs vo
i1   G1 v o  v s  G S v o
R1 RS
Current i1 can be written as: i1 G1 v s  vo 
Combining the previous equations

G1 1v s G1 1 G S v o

vo 
G1   1
vs 
  1RS
vs
G1   1 GS   1RS  R1
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 Circuit Theory Review: Find the
Thevenin Equivalent Voltage (cont.)
Using the given component values:

vo 
  1RS
vs 
50  11 k
vs 0.718vs
  1RS  R1 50  11 k  20 k
and

v th 0.718v s

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 Circuit Theory Review: Find the
Thevenin Equivalent Resistance
Problem: Find the Thevenin equivalent
resistance.
Solution:
• Known Information and Given
Data: Circuit topology and values in
figure.
• Unknowns: Thevenin equivalent
resistance Rth.
• Approach:Set all the independent
sources in the network to zero. A test
voltage vx is added to the network
terminals. Applying vx and solving
for ix allows us to find the Thevenin
Assumptions: None.
resistance as Rth=vx / ix. Analysis: Next slide…

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 Circuit Theory Review: Find the Thevenin
Equivalent Resistance (cont.)

Applying KCL,
i x  i1  i1  G S v x
G1v x  G1v x  G S v x
G1  1 G S v x
vx 1 R1
Rth   RS
i x G1  1 G S  1

R1 20 k
Rth RS 1 k 1 k 392  282 
 1 50 1

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Circuit Theory Review: Find the Norton
Equivalent Circuit
Problem: Find the Norton
equivalent circuit.
Solution:
• Known Information and Given
Data: Circuit topology and
values in figure.
• Unknowns: Norton equivalent
short circuit current iN.
A short circuit has been applied
• Approach: Evaluate current across the output. The Norton
through output short circuit. current is the current flowing
• Assumptions: None. through the short circuit at the
• Analysis: Next slide… output.

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 Circuit Theory Review: Find the
Thevenin Equivalent Resistance (cont.)
Applying KCL,
in i1   i1
G1v s   G1v s
G1   1v s
v s   1
 Short circuit at the output causes zero
R1 current to flow through RS.
Rth is equal to Rth found earlier.
50  1 vs
in  vs  (2.55 mS)v s
20 k 392 

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 Final Thevenin and Norton Circuits

Check of Results: Note that vth=inRth and this can be used to check the
calculations: inRth =(2.55 mS)vs(282 ) = 0.719vs, accurate within round-off
error.

While the two circuits are identical in terms of voltages and currents at the
output terminals, there is one difference between the two circuits. With no load
connected, the Norton circuit still dissipates power!

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 Amplifier Basics

• Analog signals are typically manipulated with

linear amplifiers.
• Although signals may be comprised of several
different components, linearity permits us to use
the superposition principle.
• Superposition allows us to calculate the effect of
each of the different components of a signal
individually and then add the individual
contributions to the output.

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 Amplifier Linearity
Given an input sinusoid: v s Vs sin( st   )

For a linear amplifier, the output is at

the same frequency, but different v o Vo sin( st     )
amplitude and phase. 

v s Vs v o Vo(   )
In phasor notation:

v o Vo(   ) Vo
Amplifier gain is: A   
vs Vs Vs
 



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 Amplifier Input/Output Response

vs = sin2000t V

Av = -5

Note: negative
gain is equivalent
to 180 degress of
phase shift.

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 Ideal Operation Amplifier (Op Amp)

Ideal op amps are assumed to have

infinite voltage gain, and
infinite input resistance.

These conditions lead to two assumptions useful in analyzing

ideal op amp circuits:
1. The voltage difference across the input terminals is zero.
2. The input currents are zero.

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 Ideal Op Amp Example
v s  i sR1  i 2 R2  v o 0
Writing a loop equation:
v  v
i s i 2  s 
R1
From assumption 2, we know that i- = 0.
 v
is  s
R1
Assumption 1 requires v- = v+ = 0. v R

Av  o  2
vs R1
Combining these equations yields:


Assumption 1 requiring v- = v+ = 0

creates what is known as a virtual
ground.

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 Ideal Op Amp Example
(Alternative Approach)
vs v  vo  vo
Writing a loop equation: is  i 2   
R1 R2 R2
vs  vo
From assumption 2, we know that i- = 0. 
R1 R2

Assumption 1 requires v- = v+ = 0. v o  R2
Av  
vs R1

Combining these equations yields:

Design Note: The virtual ground is not 

an actual ground. Do not short the
inverting input to ground to simplify
analysis.

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 Circuit Element Variations
• All electronic components have manufacturing tolerances.
– Resistors can be purchased with  10%,  5%, and
 1% tolerance. (IC resistors are often  10%.)
– Capacitors can have asymmetrical tolerances such as +20%/-50%.
– Power supply voltages typically vary from 1% to 10%.
• Device parameters will also vary with temperature and age.
• Circuits must be designed to accommodate these variations.
• We will use worst-case and Monte Carlo (statistical) analysis to
examine the effects of component parameter variations.

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 End of Chapter 1

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