Research Methodology

D R . D. A B I R A M I
A SS I SS TA N T P R O F E SS O R
D E P T. O F M A N A G EM EN T
S R I M A D A N D AVA N A RT S
A N D SC I E N C E C O L L EG E
T I R U C H I R A P PA L L I – 6 2 0 0 0 6 .
 What is research?

Research can be defined as the

search for knowledge or as any
systematic investigation to
establish facts.
 Characteristics of Research

 systematic
 logical
 empirical
 reductive
 replicable
 Types of Research

Pure and Applied Research

Exploratory or Formulative Research
Descriptive Research
Diagnostic Study
Evaluation Studies
Action Research
Experimental Research
Analytical study or statistical Method
Historical Research
Surveys
Case Study
 Pure and Applied Research

Pure
it is the study of search of
knowledge.

Applied
It is the study of finding solution
to a problem.
 Purpose of Pure and Applied Research

Pure
It can contribute new facts
It can put theory to the rest
It may aid in conceptual clarification
It may integrate previously existing
theories.
Applied
It offers solutions to many practical
problems.
To find the critical factors in a
practical problem.
 Exploratory or Formulative Research

Exploratory
Exploratory research is preliminary
study of an unfamiliar problem about
which the researcher has little or no
knowledge.
 Purpose

To Generate new ideas

To increase the researcher’s
familiarity with the problem
To Make a precise formulation of the
problem
To gather information for clarifying
concepts
To determine whether it is feasible to
attempt the study.
 Descriptive Research

Descriptive study is a fact- finding

investigation with adequate interpretation.
It is the simplest type of research.
It is designed to gather descriptive
information and provides information for
formulating more sophisticated studies
Data are collected using observation,
interview and mail questionnaire.
 Purpose

It can focus directly on a theoretical point.

It can highlight important methodological
aspects of data collection and
interpretation.
It obtained in a research may be useful for
prediction about areas of social life outside
in the boundaries of research.
Descriptive studies are valuable in
providing facts needed for planning social
action programmes.
 Diagnostic Study

It is directed towards discovering

what is happening, why is it
happening and what can be done
about.
It aims at identifying the causes of a
problem and the possible solutions for
it.
 Purpose

This study may also be concerned

with discovering and testing whether
certain variables are associated.
To determine the frequency with
which something occurs or with which
it is associated with something else.
 Evaluation Studies

It is one type of applied research.

It is made for assessing the effectiveness of
social or economic programmes implemented
or for assessing the impact of developmental
projects area.
The determination of the results attained by
some activity designed to accomplish some
valued goal or objectives.
 Purpose

It directed to assess or appraise the quality

and quantity of an activity and its
performance.
To specify its attributes and conditions
required for its success.
 Action Research

Researcher attempts to study action. E.g.

Eradication of Malariya, Maritime Navigation
Action research is a reflective process of
progressive problem solving led by
individuals working with others in teams or
as part of a "community of practice" to
improve the way they address issues and
solve problems
 Purpose

A baseline survey of the pre-action situation

A feasibility study of the proposed action
programme
Planning and launching the programme
Concurrent evaluation of the programme
Making modifications and changes in the
programme.
 Experimental Research

Experimental research is commonly used in sciences such as

sociology and psychology, physics, chemistry, biology and
medicine etc.

It is a systematic and scientific approach to research in

which the researcher manipulates one or more variables, and
controls and measures any change in other variables.
 Purpose

Experiments are conducted to be able to predict

phenomenons.
To maintain control over all factors
A blueprint of the procedure that enables the researcher to
test his hypothesis
 Analytical Study

Analytical study is a system of procedures

and techniques of analysis applied to
quantitative data.
A system of mathematical models or
statistical techniques applicable to numerical
data.
Ex. Scientometrics
 Purpose

It aims at testing hypothesis and specifying

and interpreting relationship.
It concentrates on analyzing data in depth
and examining relationships from various
angles by bringing in as many relevant
variables as possible in the analysis plan.
 Historical Research

The systematic collection and evaluation of data related to

past occurrences in order to describe causes, effects, and
trends of those events that may help explain present
events and anticipate future events.
Data is often archival-including newspaper clippings,
photographs, etc.- and may include interviews.
 Purpose

To draw explanations and generalizations from the past

trends in order to understand the present and to anticipate
the future.
It enables us to grasp our relationship with the past and to
plan more intelligently for the future.
The past contains the key to the present and the past and the
present influences the future.
It helps us in visualizing the society as a dynamic organism
and its structures and functions as evolving, steadily
growing and undergoing change and transformation.
 Survey Research

Survey research is one of the most important areas of

measurement in applied social research. The broad area of
survey research encompasses any measurement
procedures that involve asking questions of respondents.
A "survey" can be anything form a short paper-and-pencil
feedback form to an intensive one-on-one in-depth
interview.
 Purpose

It is always conducted in a natural setting.

It seeks responses directly from the
respondents.
It can cover a very large population
A survey may involve an extensive study or an
intensive study.
A survey covers a definite geographical area, a
city, district, state
 Case Study

A case study is a research methodology common in social

science.
It is based on an in-depth investigation of a single
individual, group, or event to explore causation in order to
find underlying principles
 Purpose

To examine limited number of variables

case study methods involve an in-depth, longitudinal
examination of a single instance or event.
It provides a systematic way of looking at events,
collecting data, analyzing information, and reporting the
results
 Field research

Field research has traditionally been thought different

from methods of research conducted in a laboratory or
academic setting.
Purpose
The advantages of field research are that people are closer
to real world conditions and design the research in the
best way to discover the particular information required.
 Research Design

The term “research design” means ‘drawing

for research’.
It is a systematic planning of conducting
research.
It aims to achieve goals of the research.
 Definition

‘as the arrangement of conditions for collection and

analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine
the relevance to the research purpose with
economy in procedure’-by Jahoda

 ‘a master plan, specifying the methods and

procedures for collecting and analyzing the needed
information’-by Zikmund
 Need and Purpose

 It helps in smooth sailing of the research process.

 It saves the money, manpower and materials.
 It helps the researchers for advance planning and
avoids duplication.
 It helps to modify the research if any difficulties.
 It gives reality to research.
 Research Design Process

Selection of research topic/problem,

Framing research design,
Framing sampling design,
Collection of data,
Data analysis/editing, coding, processing and
preservation
Writing research reports
 Characteristics of Good Research
Design

Theory-Grounded,
Environment,
Feasibility of Implementation,
Redundancy,
Efficient.

Cont…
It should be flexible
It should be economical
It should be unbiased
It should fulfill the objectives of the research
It should be more appropriate to all the
aspects of research.

Cont…
It should guide him to achieve correct results.
It provides scientific base for his research.
It also should facilitate to complete the
research work within the stipulated time.
 Functions of Research Design

It provides a blueprint of research.

It limits (dictates) the boundaries of the
research activities.
It enables investigation to anticipate potential
problems
 Components of Research Design

Title of the investigation

Purpose of the study
Review of related literature
Statement of the problem
Scope of the investigation

Cont…
Objectives of the study
Variables
Hypothesis
Selection of sample
Data Collection
Analysis of data
 Types of Research Design

Experimental Designs
Non- Experimental Designs
 Experimental Designs

There are two types

Quasi-experimental
Experimental
 Non-Experimental Design

Case study designs/method.

Content analysis.
Ethnography.
Focus groups.
Network analysis and sociometry.
 Hypotheses

The purpose of hypothesis testing is to determine

whether there is enough statistical evidence in favor of a
certain belief about a parameter.
An hypothesis is a preliminary or tentative explanation
or postulate by the researcher of what the researcher
considers the outcome of an investigation will be. It is
an informed/educated guess.
It indicates the expectations of the researcher regarding
certain variables. It is the most specific way in which
an answer to a problem can be stated.
 Define Hypothesis

A tentative statement about a population

parameter that might be true or wrong
The Difference Between An Hypothesis And A Problem
Both an hypothesis and a problem contribute to the body
of knowledge which supports or refutes an existing theory.
An hypothesis differs from a problem.
A problem is formulated in the form of a question; it
serves as the basis or origin from which an hypothesis is
derived.
An hypothesis is a suggested solution to a problem.
A problem (question) cannot be directly tested, whereas an
hypothesis can be tested and verified.
 When is an Hypothesis Formulated

An hypothesis is formulated after the problem

has been stated and the literature study has
been concluded.
 It is formulated when the researcher is
totally aware of the theoretical and empirical
background to the problem.
 PURPOSE AND FUNCTION OF AN HYPOTHESIS

 It offers explanations for the relationships between those

variables that can be empirically tested.
 It furnishes proof that the researcher has sufficient background
knowledge to enable him/her to make suggestions in order to
extend existing knowledge.
 It gives direction to an investigation.
 It structures the next phase in the investigation and therefore
furnishes continuity to the examination of the problem.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF AN HYPOTHESIS

It should have elucidating power.

It should strive to furnish an acceptable explanation of the
phenomenon.
It must be verifiable.
It must be formulated in simple, understandable terms.
It should corresponds with existing knowledge.
 Types of Hypotheses

1. Descriptive Hypotheses:
 These are propositions that describe the characteristics
( such as size, form or distribution) of a variable. The
variable may be an object, person, organization etc. ,
e.g., The rate of unemployment among arts graduates is higher than
that of commerce graduates. The educational system is not
oriented to human resource needs of a country.
2. Relational Hypotheses.
 These are propositions which describe the relationship
between tow variables.
e. g. , Families with higher incomes spend more for recreation
Upper – class people have fewer children than lower
class people.

Cont…
3. Causal Hypotheses
 It state that the existence of, or a change in, one variable Causes or leads to an
effect on another variable.
 The first variable is called the independent variable, and the latter the
dependent variable.
 When dealing with causal relationships between variables the researcher must
consider the direction in which such relationship flow
e.g: which is cause and which is effect
4. Working Hypotheses
 While planning the study of a problem, hypotheses are
formed.
 Initially they may not be very specific. In such cases, they
are referred to as ‘ working hypotheses’ which are subject
to modification as the investigation proceeds.
Cont…
. Null Hypotheses
 This hypotheses are formulated for testing statistical
significance, since, this form is a convenient approach to
statistical analysis. As the test would nullify the null
hypotheses.
e.g., : There is a relationship between a family’s income and
expenditure on recreation, a null hypothesis may state: There is
no relationship between families income level and expenditure on
recreation.

6. Statistical Hypotheses
 These are statements about a statistical population. These
are derived from a sample. These are quantitative in nature
in that they are numerically measurable
Cont…
eg: Group A is older than B’
Common Sense Hypotheses
 It state the existence of empirical uniformities perceived
through day to day observations.
e.g., “ Shop-assistants in small shops lack motivation”
8. Complex Hypotheses
 These aim at testing the existence of logically derived
relationships between empirical uniformities.
e.g., In the early stage human ecology described empirical
uniformities in the distribution of land values, industrial
concentrations, types of business and other phenomena.
9. Analytical Hypotheses:
 It concerned with the relationship of analytic variables. These
hypotheses occur at the highest level of abstraction.
 These specify relationship between changes in one property and
changes in another.
Eg., The study of human fertility might show empirical regularities by
wealth, education, region, and religion.
Characteristics of a Good Hypotheses

 Conceptual Clarity
 Specificity
 Testability
 Availability of Techniques
 Theoretical relevance
 Consistency
 Objectivity
 Simplicity
 Sources of Hypotheses
 Theory
 Observation
 Analogies
 Intuition and personal experience
 Findings of studies
 State of Knowledge
 Culture
 Continuity of Research
 Sampling

Sampling is the process

of selecting a small number of elements
from a larger defined target group
of elements such that
the information gathered
from the small group will allow judgments
to be made about the larger groups
Basics of Sampling Theory

Population

Element

Defined target
population

Sampling unit

Sampling frame
 Sampling Error

Sampling error is any type of bias

that is attributable to mistakes
in either drawing a sample or
determining the sample size
 Developing a Sampling Plan

1. Define the Population of Interest

2. Identify a Sampling Frame (if possible)
3. Select a Sampling Method
4. Determine Sample Size
5. Execute the Sampling Plan
 Defining Population of Interest

Population of interest is entirely dependent

on Management Problem, Research
Problems, and Research Design.
Some Bases for Defining Population:
 Geographic Area
 Demographics
 Usage/Lifestyle
 Awareness
 Sampling Frame

A list of population elements (people,

companies, houses, cities, etc.) from which
units to be sampled can be selected.
Difficult to get an accurate list.
Sample frame error occurs when certain
elements of the population are accidentally
omitted or not included on the list.
See Survey Sampling International for some
good examples
http://www.surveysampling.com/
 Sampling Methods

Probability Nonprobability
sampling sampling
 Types of Sampling Methods
Probability Nonprobability
• Simple random • Convenience
sampling sampling
• Systematic random • Judgment
sampling sampling
• Stratified random • Quota sampling
sampling • Snowball
• Cluster sampling sampling
 Simple Random Sampling

Simple random sampling is a method of

probability sampling in which
every unit has an equal nonzero
chance of being selected
 Systematic Random Sampling

Systematic random sampling is a

method of
probability sampling
in which the defined
target population is ordered
and the sample is selected
according to position using a skip interval
Steps in Drawing a Systematic Random Sample

1: Obtain a list of units that contains an

acceptable frame of the target population

2: Determine the number of units in the list and

the desired sample size

3: Compute the skip interval

4: Determine a random start point

5: Beginning at the start point, select the units

by choosing each unit that corresponds to the
skip interval
 Stratified Random Sampling

Stratified random sampling is a

method of
probability sampling
in which the population is divided
into different subgroups and samples
are selected from each
Steps in Drawing a Stratified Random Sample

1: Divide the target population into

homogeneous subgroups or strata
2: Draw random samples fro each
stratum
3: Combine the samples from each
stratum into a single sample of the target
population
 Cluster Sampling

Cluster sampling is a sampling technique used when

"natural" groupings are evident in a statistical
population.
It is often used in marketing research.
It divide population into Comparable groups: Schools,
Cities etc..
cluster sampling is to reduce the average cost per
interview
the technique given more accurate results when most of
the variation in the population is within the groups,
Nonprobability Sampling Methods

Convenience sampling relies

upon convenience and access

Judgment sampling relies upon belief

that participants fit characteristics

Quota sampling emphasizes representation

of specific characteristics

Snowball sampling relies upon respondent

referrals of others with like characteristics
Convenience samples: samples drawn at the convenience
of the interviewer. People tend to make the selection at
familiar locations and to choose respondents who are like
themselves.
Judgment samples: samples that require a judgment or an
“educated guess” on the part of the interviewer as to who
should represent the population. Also, “judges” (informed
individuals) may be asked to suggest who should be in the
sample.
Quota samples: samples that set a specific number of
certain types of individuals to be interviewed
snowball sampling: is a technique for developing a
research sample where existing study subjects recruit future
subjects from among their acquaintances.
 Factors to Consider in Sample Design

Research objectives Degree of accuracy

Resources Time frame

Knowledge of
target population Research scope

Statistical analysis needs

 Data Collection
70

Data collection possibilities are wide and

varied with any one method of collection not
inherently better than any other
Each has pros and cons that must be weighed
up in view of a rich and complex context
 The Data Collection Process
71

All methods of collection require rigorous

and systematic design and execution that
includes

 thorough planning
 well considered development
 effective piloting
 weighed modification
 deliberate implementation and execution
 appropriate management and analysis
 Surveys
72

Surveying involves gathering information

from individuals using a questionnaire

Surveys can
 reach a large number of respondents
 generate standardized, quantifiable, empirical
data - as well as some qualitative data
 and offer confidentiality / anonymity

Designing survey instruments capable of

generating credible data, however, can be
difficult
 Survey Types
73

Surveys can be

 descriptive or explanatory
 involve entire populations or samples of populations
 capture a moment or map trends
 can be administered in a number of ways
 Survey Construction
74

Survey construction involves

 formulating questions and response categories

 writing up background information and instruction
 working through organization and length
 determining layout and design
 Interviewing
75

Interviewing involves asking respondents a

series of open-ended questions
Interviews can generate both standardized
quantifiable data, and more in-depth
qualitative data
However, the complexities of people and the
complexities of communication can create
many opportunities for miscommunication
and misinterpretation
 Interview Types
76

Interviews can range from

 formal to informal
 structured to unstructured

 can be one on one or involve groups

 Conducting Interviews
77

When conducting your interviews you will

need to
 question, prompt, and probe in ways that help you
gather rich data
 actively listen and make sense of what is being said
 manage the overall process
 Observation
78

Observation relies on the researchers’ ability

to gather data though their senses - and
allows researchers to document actual
behaviour rather than responses related to
behaviour

However, the observed can act differently

when surveilled, and observations can be
tainted by a researcher’s worldview
 Observation Types
79

Observation can range from

 non-participant to participant
 candid to covert

 from structured to unstructured

 The Observation Process
80

The observation process is sometimes treated

casually, but is a method that needs to be
treated as rigorously as any other
The process should include planning,
observing, recording, reflecting, and
authenticating
 Experimentation
81

Experimentation explores cause and effect

relationships by manipulating independent
variables in order to see if there is a
corresponding effect on a dependent variable
 Experimentation
82

Pure experimentation requires both a

controlled environment and the use of a
randomly assigned control group
This can be difficult to achieve in human
centred experiments conducted in the real-
world
 Real-World Experiments
83

There are many experiments that can only be

carried out in the messy uncontrolled
environments of the real-world, so the search
for cause and effect will require tradeoffs
between real-world contexts and a controlled
environment
questionnaire surveys (includes mail)

Advantages:

• Quick and easy to administer.

• Can get a large amount of information in a short time.
• Allows for employee participation.
• Does not require trained interviewer.
• Relatively less expensive.

Disadvantages:

• Quality of information related to the quality of the questionnaire.

• Must have high school reading and writing ability to complete one.
• Often needs follow-up interview or observation.
• May be difficult to construct.
• May have low response rate.
• Responses may be incomplete.
• Responses may be difficult to interpret (open-ended)

Online surveys:
• The use of the Internet has made a huge difference to the way surveys are
conducted and has
become a science unto itself.
• quick to implement. Lower cost, higher
84
Face-to-face interviews :
Most informative method of qualitative data collection because
the human interaction of face-to-face interviews provides the opportunity to
probe for insights and build on responses for greater value.
Door-to-door: People are contacted at home and in person (abandoned in
Developed due to high cost of transport, staff)
Street / shopping mall intercepts: Popular in Developed Economies (some
Malls consider a nuisance).
Telephone interviews are less time consuming and less expensive and the
researcher has ready access to anyone on the planet who has a telephone.
Disadvantages are that the response rate is not as high as the face-to- face
interview but considerably higher than the mailed questionnaire. The
sample may be biased to the extent that people without phones are part of
the population about whom the researcher wants to draw inferences.
85
Web based questionnaires :
A new and inevitably growing methodology is the use of Internet based
research. This would mean receiving an e-mail on which you would click on an
address that would take you to a secure web-site to fill in a questionnaire. This type
of research is often quicker and less detailed. Some disadvantages of this method
include the exclusion of people who do not have a computer or are unable to access
a computer. Also the validity of such surveys are in question as people might be in a
hurry to complete it and so might not give accurate responses.

Computer Assisted Personal Interviewing (CAPI): is a form of personal

interviewing, but instead of completing a questionnaire, the interviewer brings along
a laptop or hand-held computer to enter the information directly into the database.
This method saves time involved in processing the data, as well as saving the
interviewer from carrying around hundreds of questionnaires. However, this type of
data collection method can be expensive to set up and requires that interviewers have
computer and typing skills.

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