CS-- Discrete Structures

Lecture - 7
Introduction
to
Proofs
Proof
s
• Proof:
A proof is a valid argument that establishes the
truth of a mathematical statement.
• Proofs are essential in mathematics and
computer science.
• Some applications of proof methods
• Proving mathematical theorems
• Designing algorithms and proving they meet their
specifications
• Verifying computer programs
• Establishing operating systems are secure
• Making inferences in artificial intelligence
• Showing system specifications are consistent
• …
Terminolo
gy
• Theorem: A statement that can be shown true.
Sometimes
called facts.
• Lemma: A less important theorem that is useful to
prove a
theorem.
• Proof: Demonstration that a theorem is true.

• Axiom: A statement that is assumed to be true.

• Corollary: A theorem that can be proven directly

from a theorem that has been proved.

• Conjecture: A statement that is being proposed
to be a true
Theorem
Definition: A theorem is a statement that has
been proven to be true through a logical series of
steps.
Example: The Pythagorean theorem in geometry
is a classic example. It states that in a right-
angled triangle, the square of the hypotenuse
(the side opposite the right angle) is equal to the
sum of the squares of the other two sides.
In symbols:
a2+b2=c2
Lemma
Definition: A lemma is a "helping" theorem, a
small result used to assist in proving a larger,
more significant theorem.
Example: Before proving the Pythagorean
theorem, we might prove a lemma about the
properties of squares and rectangles that we’ll
use in the main proof. Lemmas are generally less
famous or standalone than theorems.
Proof
Definition: A proof is a logical argument that
demonstrates the truth of a theorem. Proofs use
known facts, lemmas, or axioms to show that a
theorem is true.
Example: Proving that the sum of two even
numbers is always even.
Proof: Let a and b be two even numbers. By
definition of even numbers, we can write
a=2m and
b=2n where
m and n are integers. Then
a+b=2m+2n=2(m+n), which is also an even
number because it’s divisible by 2.
Axiom
Definition: An axiom is a fundamental
statement assumed to be true without
proof. Axioms are used as starting points
in logical reasoning.
Example: One common axiom in set
theory is that a set contains all its
elements. For instance, if
A={1,2,3}, it’s assumed (without needing
proof) that
1∈A, 2∈A, and 3∈A.
Corollary
Definition: A corollary is a
statement that follows directly from a
theorem that has already been
proven. It’s often a “bonus” result
that uses the theorem’s truth.
Example: After proving the
Pythagorean theorem, a corollary
would be: "In a right triangle, if two
sides are of equal length, then the
hypotenuse is 2 underroot​times the
length of each side."
Conjecture
Definition: A conjecture is a
statement proposed to be true based
on observations but has not yet been
proven or disproven.
Example: The Goldbach Conjecture
states that "Every even integer
greater than 2 can be expressed as
the sum of two prime numbers." This
has been checked for many numbers
but has not been proven for all even
numbers.
Summary:
Theorem: Proven, significant statement
(e.g., Pythagorean theorem).
Lemma: Supporting result used in proofs.
Proof: The logical steps to show a
theorem is true.
Axiom: Accepted statement without proof
(basic truths).
Corollary: Direct consequence of a
theorem.
Conjecture: Proposed statement that
hasn’t been proven yet.
Stating
Theorems
• Theorem: If 𝑥 > 𝑦, where 𝑥 and 𝑦 are positive real

then 𝑥 2 > 𝑦 2 .
numbers,

• Theorem: For all positive real numbers 𝑥 and 𝑦, if 𝑥

>
𝑥 2 𝑦,
> then
𝑦2 .
Theore
m
• Conditional statement (review):
• p  q is true unless p is false and q is
true.

p q p q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
Methods of Proving
Theorems
Vacuous
Proof
• Consider an implication: 𝑝→𝑞

• If it can be shown that 𝑝 is false, then the

implication is
always true.
• By definition of an implication

• Note that you are showing that the hypothesis is

false
Vacuous Proof
• Assume P(n) is “if n > 0, then 𝑛2 > 0”. Show
Example
that P(0) is
true.

• Proof:

P(0) is “if 0 > 0, then 02 > 0”.

Since the hypothesis of P(0) is false, then
P(0) is true.

• Vacuous proof:
p  q is true when p is false.
Vacuous Proof
• If n is both odd and even then n2 =
Example
n+n
Trivial
• Consider an implication: 𝑝 → 𝑞
Proof
• If it can be shown that q is true, then the
implication is always true
• By definition of an implication

• Note that you are showing that the conclusion

is true
Trivial Proof
• Assume P(n) is “if ab > 0, then (𝑎𝑏)𝑛 > 0”. Show
Example
that P(0)
is true.

• Proof:

P(0) is “if ab >0, then (𝑎𝑏)0 > 0”.

(𝑎𝑏)0 = 1 > 0
Since the conclusion of P(0) is true, P(0) is true.

• Trivial proof:
p  q is true when q is true.
Trivial Proof
Example
• If n is the sum of two prime numbers,
then either n is odd or n is even.

•If you are in CS-305 then you are a

student.
Direct
Proof
•A direct of a conditional
constructed
proof when
statement
the first stepp is the assumption
→ q is
that p is true; use axioms, definitions, and
previously proven theorems, together with rules of
inference, with the final step showing that q must
also be true.

• A direct proof shows that a conditional statement p

→ q is true by showing that if p is true, then q must
also be true, so that the combination p true and q
false never occurs.
Direct
Proof
•Direct proof of p 
q:

• Assume p is true.

These steps are constructed

using Rules of inference
Axioms
Lemmas
Definitio
ns
Proven
• q must be theorem
true. s
Direct
Proof
• Odd Number:
n is odd if n=2k+1 for some k of type
integer.

• Even Number:
n is even if n=2k for some k of type
integer.
Direct
Proof
If n is an odd integer, then 𝑛2 is
• Theorem:

odd.
• Proof:

integer. By definition, ∃
Assume n is an odd

integer k, such that n =

2k + 1
𝑛2 = (2k + 1)2
𝑛2 = 4𝑘2 + 4k + 1 = 2 (2𝑘2 +
2k) + 1 Let m = 2𝑘2 + 2k.
𝑛2 = 2m + 1
2
Direct
Proof
• Theorem:
If n and m are both perfect squares then nm
is also a perfect square.
• Proof:
Assume n and m are perfect Definition:
An integer a
squares.
By definition, ∃ integers s
is perfect

∃ integer b
and t such that n = 𝑠 2
square if

and m = 𝑡 2 . that a= 𝑏2 .
such

nm = 𝑠 2 𝑡 2 = (𝑠𝑡)2
Let k =
st. nm
Direct
Proof
• Prove If n and m are odd integers then n + m
is even.
Exampl
e
• Theorem:
The sum of two rational numbers is
rational.
• Proof:

∃ p,q r =r p/q
q≠0
Assume and s are rational. Definition:
The real

∃ u ≠= (pu+tq) / (qu)
number r is
t,u= sp/q
= t/u
Since q ≠ 0 and u ≠ 0 then qu ≠
r+s + t/u rational if

∃ integers p
0 r=p/q,

that q ≠ 0.
and q

where n ≠ 0. So, r+s = m/n,

0. Let m=(pu+tq) and n=qu

where n ≠ 0.
So, r+s is rational.
Proof
Techniques
• Direct proof leads from the hypothesis of a
theorem to the conclusion.

• Proofs of theorems that do not start with the

hypothesis and end with the conclusion, are
called indirect proofs.
Proof By
Contraposition
p  q  ¬q 
¬p

Condition Its
al contrapositi
stateme ve
nt
• In a proof by contraposition of p  q, we take
¬q as a hypothesis and we show that ¬p
must follow.
• Thus, show that if ¬q is true, then ¬p is
true

• Proof by contraposition is an indirect proof.

Proof By
Contraposition
•Proof by contraposition of p
 q:

• Assume ¬q is true.

These steps are constructed

using Rules of inference
Axioms
Lemmas
Definitio
ns
Proven
• ¬p must be theorem
true. s
Proof By Contraposition
(Example)
• Theorem:
If n is an integer and 3n+2 is odd, then n
is odd.
• Proof (by
contraposition):
Assume n is even.
 integer k, such that
n = 2k
3n+2 = 3(2k)+2 =
2(3k+1)
Let m = 3k+1.
3n+2 = 2m
Proof By Contraposition
(Example)
• Theorem:

integers, then b ≤ 𝑛 or a ≤ 𝑛.
If n = ab, where a and b are positive

• Proof (by contraposition):

• Assume b > 𝑛 and a > 𝑛.
ab > ( 𝑛) . ( 𝑛)

So, n ≠ ab.
ab > n

𝑛 or a ≤
then b ≤ 𝑛.
By contraposition, if n = ab,
Exampl
e
• Theorem:

If n is an integer and 𝑛2 is even, then n is

even.
Direct proof or proof by contraposition?
• Proof (direct proof):

Assume 𝑛2 is an even integer.

𝑛2 = 2k (k is integer)
n = ± 2k
???
dead end!
Exampl
e
• Theorem:

If n is an integer and 𝑛2 is even, then n is

even.
Direct proof or proof by contraposition?
• Proof (proof by contraposition):
Assume n is an odd integer.
n = 2k+1 (k is integer)
𝑛2 = (2𝑘 + 1)2 = 4𝑘2 + 4𝑘 + 1 = 2 2𝑘2 +
2𝑘
+1
Assume integer m = 2 𝑘 2 + 2k.
𝑛2 = 2m +
Proof By
Contradiction
• How to prove a proposition by
contradiction?

• Assume the proposition is false.

• Using the assumption and other facts to
reach a contradiction.
• This is another kind of indirect proof.
Proof By
Contradiction
•Proof by contradiction of p
 q:

• Assume p and ¬q is true.

These steps are constructed

using Rules of inference
Axioms
Lemmas
Definitio
ns
contradiction Proven
theorem
s
Proof By Contradiction
(Example)
• Prove if 3n+5 is even then n is odd.
• Proof (proof by contradiction):
Assume 3n+5 is even and n is
even. n = 2k (k is some
integer)
3n+5 = 3(2k) + 5 = 6k + 5 =
2(3k + 2) + 1
Assume m =
3k+2. 3n+5 =
2m + 1
So, 3n+5 is odd.
Which contradicts over assumption that 3n+5
Proof By Contradiction
• Prove if 𝑛2 is odd then n is
(Example)
odd.
• Proof (proof by

∃ integer k
contradiction): Assume
n= 𝑛2 is
𝑛2 =and
odd 4𝑘2n = 2k
is even.
2(2𝑘2) Let m
= 2𝑘2
𝑛2 = 2m
So, 𝑛 is even.
2
Which2 contradicts over assumption that p is “𝑛

is odd ”. So by contradiction, if 𝑛2 is odd then n

is odd.
Proof By Contradiction
(Example)
• Prove The difference of any rational number and any
irrational
number is irrational.
• Proof:

true.] Suppose ∃ a rational number x and an irrational

[We take the negation of the theorem and suppose it to be

number y such x= that

a/b (x − y)forissome
rational. By definition
integers a and b of
with
rational,
an we have
x − y = c/d b ≠ 0. for some integers c and
d x − y = c/d d with d ≠ 0.
a/b − y =
c/d y = a/b
=−(adc/d− bc)/bd
But (ad − bc) are integers and bd ≠ 0. Therefore, by
definition of rational, y is rational. This contradicts the
supposition that y is irrational. [Hence, the supposition is
false and the theorem is true.]
Proof By Contradiction
Prove that 2 is not rational by
(Example)
•

2 isby
contradiction.

2 = a/b
• Proof
Assum (proof contradiction):
rational. Definition:

∃
e The real

b≠0
number r
a and
If a , b b have common factor,
is rational if
remove it
∃ integers p
r=p/q,

by it 2 = 𝑎2 / 𝑏2
by dividing a and b

2 𝑏2𝑎= is
𝑎2even and by previous theorem, a is≠even.
2
and q that q

∃k
So, 0.

2k. 2 𝑏2 =
a=

4 𝑘2
𝑏2 = 2 𝑘2
So, 𝑏2 is
even and
by previous
Practice Exercise and Chapter
Reading
• Q – 1,2,3,6,9,10,17,18,19
• Chapter 1, Kenneth H. Rosen, Discrete
Mathematics and Its Applications, Section 1.7