Digital Logic Design I

Boolean Algebra and Logic

Gate

1
 Algebras
 What is an algebra?
 Mathematical system consisting of
 Set of elements
 Set of operators
 Axioms or postulates
 Why is it important?
 Defines rules of “calculations”
 Example: arithmetic on natural numbers
 Set of elements: N = {1,2,3,4,…}
 Operator: +, –, *
 Axioms: associativity, distributivity, closure, identity elements,
etc.
 Note: operators with two inputs are called binary
 Does not mean they are restricted to binary numbers!
 Operator(s) with one input are called unary

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 BASIC DEFINITIONS
 A set is collection of having the same property.
 S: set, x and y: element or event
 For example: S = {1, 2, 3, 4}
 If x = 2, then xÎS.
 If y = 5, then y S.
 A binary operator defines on a set S of elements is a
rule that assigns, to each pair of elements from S, a
unique element from S.
 For example: given a set S, consider a*b = c and * is a binary
operator.
 If (a, b) through * get c and a, b, cÎS, then * is a binary
operator of S.
 On the other hand, if * is not a binary operator of S and a, bÎS,
then c  S.

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 BASIC DEFINITIONS
 The most common postulates used to formulate various
algebraic structures are as follows:
1. Closure: a set S is closed with respect to a binary operator if, for
every pair of elements of S, the binary operator specifies a rule for
obtaining a unique element of S.
 For example, natural numbers N={1,2,3,...} is closed w.r.t. the binary
operator + by the rule of arithmetic addition, since, for any a, bÎN, there
is a unique cÎN such that
 a+b = c
 But operator – is not closed for N, because 2-3 = -1 and 2, 3 ÎN, but (-1)N.
2. Associative law: a binary operator * on a set S is said to be
associative whenever
 (x * y) * z = x * (y * z) for all x, y, zÎS
 (x+y)+z = x+(y+z)
3. Commutative law: a binary operator * on a set S is said to be
commutative whenever
 x * y = y * x for all x, yÎS
 x+y = y+x

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 BASIC DEFINITIONS
4. Identity element: a set S is said to have an identity element with
respect to a binary operation * on S if there exists an element
eÎS with the property that
 e * x = x * e = x for every xÎS
 0+x = x+0 =x for every xÎI . I = {…, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, …}.
 1*x = x*1 =x for every xÎI. I = {…, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, …}.
5. Inverse: a set having the identity element e with respect to the
binary operator to have an inverse whenever, for every xÎS, there
exists an element yÎS such that
 x*y=e x*x’= 0 x+x’ =1
6. Distributive law: if * and ． are two binary operators on a set S, *
is said to be distributive over . whenever
 x * (y+z) = (x * y)+(x * z)

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 George Boole
 Father of Boolean algebra
 He came up with a type of linguistic algebra, the three
most basic operations of which were (and still are) AND,
OR and NOT. It was these three functions that formed
the basis of his premise, and were the only operations
necessary to perform comparisons or basic
mathematical functions.
 Boole’s system (detailed in his 'An Investigation of the
Laws of Thought, on Which Are Founded the
Mathematical Theories of Logic and Probabilities', 1854)
was based on a binary approach, processing only two
objects - the yes-no, true-false, on-off, zero-one
approach.
George Boole (1815 - 1864)
 Surprisingly, given his standing in the academic
community, Boole's idea was either criticized or
completely ignored by the majority of his peers.
 Eventually, one bright student, Claude Shannon (1916-
2001), picked up the idea and ran with it

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 Axiomatic Definition of Boolean Algebra
 We need to define algebra for binary values
 Developed by George Boole in 1854
 Huntington postulates for Boolean algebra (1904):
 B = {0, 1} and two binary operations, + and ．
 Closure with respect to operator + and operator ·
 Identity element 0 for operator + and 1 for operator ·
 Commutativity with respect to + and ·
x+y = y+x, x·y = y·x
 Distributivity of · over +, and + over ·
x·(y+z) = (x·y)+(x·z) and x+(y·z) = (x+y)·(x+z)
 Complement for every element x is x’ with x+x’=1, x·x’=0
 There are at least two elements x,yB such that xy

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 Boolean Algebra
 Terminology:
 Literal: A variable or its complement A-Z a –z b’A’ a’
 Product term: literals connected by • a.b
 Sum term: literals connected by + a+b

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 Postulates of Two-Valued Boolean
Algebra
 B = {0, 1} and two binary operations, + and ．
 The rules of operations: AND 、 OR and NOT.

AND OR NOT
x y x．y x y x+y x x'
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
1. Closure (+ and‧)
2. The identity elements
(1) +: 0
(2) ． : 1

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Postulates of Two-Valued Boolean
Algebra
3. The commutative laws - x+y = y+x, x·y = y·x
4. The distributive laws

y+ x． x． (x ． y)+(x ．
x y z x．z
z (y+z) y z)
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

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 Postulates of Two-Valued Boolean
Algebra
5. Complement
 x+x'=1 → 0+0'=0+1=1; 1+1'=1+0=1
 x ． x'=0 → 0 ． 0'=0 ． 1=0; 1 ． 1’=0 ． 0=0
6. Has two distinct elements 1 and 0, with 0 ≠ 1

 Note
 A set of two elements
 + : OR operation; ． : AND operation
 A complement operator: NOT operation
 Binary logic is a two-valued Boolean algebra

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Duality
 The principle of duality is an important concept.
This says that if an expression is valid in Boolean
algebra, the dual of that expression is also valid.
 To form the dual of an expression, replace all +
operators with . operators, all . operators with +
operators, all ones with zeros, and all zeros with
ones.
 Form the dual of the expression
a + (bc) =(a + b)(a + c)
 Following the replacement rules…
a(b + c) = (ab) + (ac)
 Take care not to alter the location of the
parentheses if they are present.

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Basic Theorems

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 Boolean Theorems
 Huntington’s postulates define some rules
Post. 1:
closure
Post. 2:
(a) x+0=x, (b) x·1=x
Post. 3:
(a) x+y=y+x, (b) x·y=y·x
Post. 4:
(a) x(y+z) = xy+xz,
(b) x+yz = (x+y)(x+z)
 Need more rules to modify Post. 5: (a) x+x’=1, (b) x·x’=0
algebraic expressions
 Theorems that are derived from postulates
 What is a theorem?
 A formula or statement that is derived from
postulates (or other proven theorems)
 Basic theorems of Boolean algebra
 Theorem 1 (a): x + x = x (b): x · x = x
 Looks straightforward, but needs to be proven !

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 Proof of x+x=x
 We can only use Huntington postulates:
Huntington postulates:
Post. 2: (a) x+0=x, (b) x·1=x
Post. 3: (a) x+y=y+x, (b) x·y=y·x
Post. 4: (a) x(y+z) = xy+xz,
(b) x+yz = (x+y)(x+z)
Post. 5: (a) x+x’=1, (b) x·x’=0
 Show that x+x=x.
x+x = (x+x)·1 by 2(b) x+x=x x.x=x
= (x+x)(x+x’) by 5(a)
= x+xx’ by 4(b)
= x+0 by 5(b)
=x by 2(a)
Q.E.D.
 We can now use Theorem 1(a) in future proofs

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 Proof of x·x=x
 Similar to previous Huntington postulates:
proof
Post. 2: (a) x+0=x, (b) x·1=x
Post. 3: (a) x+y=y+x, (b) x·y=y·x
Post. 4: (a) x(y+z) = xy+xz,
(b) x+yz = (x+y)(x+z)
Post. 5: (a) x+x’=1, (b) x·x’=0
Th. 1: (a) x+x=x (b) x.x=x

 Show that x·x = x.

x·x = xx+0 by 2(a)
= xx+xx’ by 5(b)
= x(x+x’) by 4(a)
= x·1 by 5(a)
=x by 2(b)
Q.E.D.

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 Proof of x+1=1
 Theorem 2(a): x + 1 = 1 Huntington postulates:

x + 1 = 1 ． (x + 1) by 2(b) Post. 2: (a) x+0=x, (b) x·1=x

=(x + x')(x + 1) Post.
5(a) 3: (a) x+y=y+x, (b) x·y=y·x
Post. 4: (a) x(y+z) = xy+xz,
= x + x' 1 4(b)
(b) x+yz = (x+y)(x+z)
= x + x' 2(b) 5: (a) x+x’=1, (b) x·x’=0
Post.
=1 5(a)1: (a) x+x=x
Th.
 Theorem 2(b): x ． 0 = 0 by duality
 Theorem 3: (x')' = x
 Postulate 5 defines the complement of x, x + x' = 1 and x x' = 0
 The complement of x' is x is also (x')'

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 Absorption Property (Covering)
 Huntington postulates:
Theorem 6(a): x + xy = x
 x + xy = x ． 1 + xy by 2(b) Post. 2: (a) x+0=x, (b) x·1=x
= x (1 + y) 4(a) Post. 3: (a) x+y=y+x, (b) x·y=y·x
= x (y + 1) 3(a) Post. 4: (a) x(y+z) = xy+xz,
=x．1 Th 2(a) (b) x+yz = (x+y)(x+z)
=x 2(b) Post. 5: (a) x+x’=1, (b) x·x’=0
Th. 1: (a) x+x=x
 Theorem 6(b): x (x + y) = x by duality
 By means of truth table (another way to proof )

x y xy x+x
y
0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
1 0 0 1
1 1 1 1
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 DeMorgan’s Theorem
 Theorem 5(a): (x + y)’ = x’y’
 Theorem 5(b): (xy)’ = x’ + y’
 By means of truth table

x y x’ y’ x+y (x+y) x’y’ xy x’+y' (xy)’

’
0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1
0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1
1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0

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 Consensus Theorem
1. xy + x’z + yz = xy + x’z
2. (x+y)•(x’+z)•(y+z) = (x+y)•(x’+z) -- (dual)
 Proof:
xy + x’z + 1.yz = xy + x’z + (x+x’)yz
= xy + x’z + xyz + x’yz
= (xy + xyz) + (x’z + x’zy)
 =xy(1+z)+x’z(1+y) = xy.1+ x’z.1
= xy + x’z
QED (2 true by duality).

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 Operator Precedence
 The operator precedence for evaluating Boolean
Expression is
 Parentheses
 NOT
 AND
 OR
 Examples
 x y' + z
 (x y + z)'

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 Boolean Functions
 A Boolean function
 Binary variables
 Binary operators OR and AND
 Unary operator NOT
 Parentheses
 Equal sign
 Examples
 F1= x y z’ here F1=1 if x=1,y=1,z’=1 otherwise F=0.
 F2 = x + y'z
 F3 = x' y' z + x' y z + x y'
 F4 = x y' + x’ z
 These above all Boolean function represented as an
algebraic expression can represented in a truth table.

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Boolean Functions
x y z F1 F2 F3 F4
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 1 1 1
0 1 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 0 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 1 1
1 0 1 0 1 1 1
1 1 0 1 1 0 0
1 1 1 0 1 0 0

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 Boolean Functions
X Y Z X’ Y’ Xy’ X’z X’z+xy’

0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1
0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1
1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0

F3 = x' y' z + x' y z + x y’

=x’z(y’+y) +xy’
=x’z + xy’ (post5(a))
=F4
F4=x’z+xy’
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 Boolean Functions
X Y Z x’ Y’ X’y’z X’yz Xy’ X’y’z+x’yz
+xy’
0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0

0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1
0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1
1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0

F3 = x' y' z + x' y z + x y’

=x’z(y’+y) +xy’
=x’z + xy’ (post5(a))
=F4
Parantheses
January 4, 2025 Not
25
 Boolean Functions
 Implementation with logic gates
 F4 is more economical

F2 = x + y'z

F3 = x' y' z + x' y z + x y'

F4 = x y' + x' z

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Algebraic Manipulation
 To minimize Boolean expressions
 Literal: a primed (0) or unprimed (1) variable (an input to a
gate)
 Term: an implementation with a gate
 The minimization of the number of literals and the number of
terms → a circuit with less equipment
 It is a hard problem (no specific rules to follow)
 Example 2.1
1. x(x'+y) = xx' + xy = 0+xy = xy
2. x+x'y = (x+x')(x+y) = 1 (x+y) = x+y
3. (x+y)(x+y') = x+xy+xy'+yy' = x(1+y+y') = x
4. xy + x'z + yz = xy + x'z + yz(x+x') = xy + x'z + yzx + yzx' =
xy(1+z) + x'z(1+y) = xy +x'z
5. (x+y)(x'+z)(y+z) = (x+y)(x'+z), by duality from function 4.
(consensus theorem with duality)
January 4, 2025 27
 Complement of a Function
 An interchange of 0's for 1's and 1's for 0's in the value
of F
 By DeMorgan's theorem
 (A+B+C)' = (A+X)' let B+C = X
= A'X' by theorem 5(a) (DeMorgan's)
= A'(B+C)' substitute B+C = X
= A'(B'C') by theorem 5(a) (DeMorgan's)
= A'B'C' by theorem 4(b) (associative)
 Generalizations: a function is obtained by interchanging
AND and OR operators and complementing each literal.
 (A+B+C+D+ ... +F)' = A'B'C'D'... F'
 (ABCD ... F)' = A'+ B'+C'+D' ... +F'

January 4, 2025 28
Examples
 Example 2.2
 Find the complement of F1=x’yz’+x’y’z and
F2=x(y’z’+yz) by applying De Morgan’s theorem as
many times as necessary.
 F1' = (x'yz' + x'y'z)’
= (x'yz')' (x'y'z)’ (Demorgan’s )
= (x+y'+z) (x+y+z’) (demorgan’s) (xy’z’ +xyz)’
 F2' = [x(y'z'+yz)]’
= x' + (y'z'+yz)’
= x' + (y'z')' (yz)‘
= x' + (y+z) (y'+z’) …………………
=x’+yy’+yz’+zy’+zz’ (x’+y+z)(x’+y’+z’) = x’+(y+z)(y’+z’)
= x' + yz‘+y’z x’+(y+z)(y’+z’)

January 4, 2025 29
Examples
 Example 2.3: complement of F1 and F2 function of
previous example by Taking the dual of the function and
complement each literal
1. F1 = x'yz' + x'y'z.
The dual of F1 is (x'+y+z') (x'+y'+z).
Complement each literal: (x+y'+z)(x+y+z') = F1'
2. F2 = x(y' z' + yz).
The dual of F2 is x+(y'+z') (y+z).
Complement each literal: x'+(y+z)(y' +z') = F2'

January 4, 2025 30
 Exercise
 Simplify the following Boolean function to a minimum
number of literals.
1) xy + xy’ = x(y+y’) = x
2) xyz+x’y+xyz’ =xy(z+z’)+x’y = xy +x’y =y(x+x’) =y
3) zx +zx’y
4) Y(wz’ + wz) +xy
5) ABC + A’B’C + A’BC+ABC’ + A’B’C’ to five literals
=AB(C+C’)+A’B’(C+C’)+A’BC
=AB+A’B’+A’BC (c+c’=1)
=A’B’+B(A+A’C)
=A’B’+B((A+A’)(A+C)) (distributive)
=A’B’ + B(A+C) (a+a’=1)
Implement above expression using logic gates.
January 4, 2025
 Exercise
2) (A+C+D)(A+C+D’)(A+C’+D)(A+B’) to four literals.
= (ACD)+(ACD’)+(AC’D)+(AB’) (DUAL)
= AD(C+C’)+A(CD’+B’)
= AD +A(CD’+B’)
= A(D+CD’) +AB’
=A(D+D’)(D+C) +AB’
=A(C+D)+AB’
= A(C+D) +AB’
=A(B’+C +D)
=A+B’CD (DUAL)
3) [(CD)’+A]’+A+CD+AB

January 4, 2025
 Exercise
2) (A+C+D)(A+C+D’)(A+C’+D)(A+B’) to four literals.
= (A+C)(A+C’+D)(A+B’)
= (AA+AC’+AD+AC+CC’+CD)(A+B’)
=(A+AC’+AD+AC+CD)(A+B’)
=(A+A+AD+CD)(A+B’)
=(A(1+1+D)+CD)(A+B’)
=A+CD(A+B’)
=A+ACD+B’CD
=A(1+CD)+B’CD
=A+B’CD

January 4, 2025
 Exercise
3) [(CD)’+A]’+A+CD+AB
=(CD)(A’)+A+CD+AB
CD(A’+1)+A+AB
=CD+A(1+B)
=CD+A

(x+y)’ = x’.y’
(xy)’ =x’+y’
(x’y’+z)’= (x+y).z’ de-morgan’s

(x.y) = x + y dual property

(x’y’+z) = (x’+y’).z dual
 Exercise
Find the complement of the Boolean functions and reduce
them to a minimum number of literals.
1) (BC’ + A’D)(AB’ + CD’)
= [(BC’ + A’D)(AB’ + CD’)]’
=(BC’+A’D)’ +(AB’ +CD’)’
=(B’+C)(A+D’)+(A’+B)(C’+D)
=(AB’+B’D’+AC+CD’)+(A’C’+A’D+BC’+BD)
=AB’+AC+A’C’+B’D’+BD+CD’+A’D+BC’ x+x’=1
=AB’+1+1+CD’+A’D+BC’ x+1=1
=1+1+1+1=1

3) [(AB)’A][(AB)’B] =1
4) AB’+C’D’ =(A’+B)(C+D)
January 4, 2025
 Exercise
([(AB)’A][(AB)’B])’
=((AB)’A)’ +((AB)’B)’
=((A’+B’)’+A’)+((A’+B’)’+B’)
=AB+A’+AB+B’
=AB+A’+B’
=(A+A’)(B+A’)+B’
=B+A’+B’
=1+A’
=1

January 4, 2025
 Exercise
2) B’D+A’BC’ + ACD +A’BC x+xy =x
= (B’D+A’BC’ + ACD +A’BC)’
=(B+D’)(A+B’+C)(A’+C’+D’)(A+B’+C’)
=(BA+BC+AD’+D’B’+CD’)
(A’B’+A’C’+C’A+C’B’+C’+D’A+B’D’+C’D’)
=(BA+BC+AD’+D’B’+CD’)
(A’B’+AD’+B’D+AC’+A’C’+D’C’+C’)
=(BA+BC+AD’+D’B’+CD’)(A’B’+AD’+B’D+AC’+A’C’+C’)
=(BA+BC+AD’+D’B’+CD’)(A’B’+AD’+B’D+AC’+C’)
=(BA+BC+AD’+D’B’+CD’)(A’B’+AD’+B’D+C’)
=ABD’+ABC’+ABCD’+AD’+AC’D’+A’B’D’+AB’D’+B’C’D’
+A’B’CD’+ACD’
= January 4, 2025
 Exercise
==ABD’+ABC’+ABCD’+AD’+AC’D’+A’B’D’+AB’D’+B’C’D’
+A’B’CD’+ACD’
=ABD’+ABC’+ABCD’+AD’+AC’D’+B’D’+B’C’D’
+A’B’CD’+ACD’
=ABD’+ABC’+ABCD’+AD’+AC’D’+B’D’ +A’B’CD’+ACD’
=ABD’+ABC’+ABCD’+AD’+AC’D’+B’D’+ACD’
=ABD’+ABC’+ABCD’+AD’+AD’+B’D’
=ABD’+ABC’+ABCD’+AD’+B’D’
=ABD’+ABC’+AD’+AD’+B’D’
=ABD’+ABC’+AD’+B’D’
=B’D’+AD’+ABC’
=B’D’+A(D’+BC’)……………….FINAL RESULT

January 4, 2025
 Exercise
Reduce the following Boolean expressions:
1) AABBC === ABC
2) 2) ABB’AC==== 0
3) 3) P+P+P+P===P
4) 4) 0+P+Q+1== 0+Q+1=0+1=1
5) 5) P+Q+R+R+R’====1
6) AB+A(B+C)+B’(B+D) ===AB+AC+B’D
7) (X+Y+Z)(X’+Y’+X’)X ==XY’ +XY’Z =XY’
8) AB+(AC)’+AB’C(AB+C)=== AB+A’+C’+AB’C
=A(B+B’C)+A’+C’ = A(B+C)+A’+C’ = AB+AC+A’+C’
=(A+A’)(B+A’)+(A+C’)(C+C’)=(A’+B)+(A+C’)
9)Verify by the truth table method.
A+A’B+AB =A+B
January 4, 2025
 Exercise
AB+(AC)’+AB’C(AB+C)
\= AB+A’+C’+AB’CAB+AB’CC
=AB+A’+C’+AB’C
=A(B+B’C)+A’+C’
= A(B+B’)(B+C)+A’+C’
= AB+AC+A’+C’
=(AB+A’)+(AC+C’)
=(A+A’)(B+A’) +(C+C’)(A+C’)
=(A+A’)(B+A’)+(A+C’)(C+C’)=(A’+B)+(A+C’)
9)Verify by the truth table method.
A+A’B+AB =A+B
F=x’yz’+x’yz+xyz’+xyz

January 4, 2025
 Exercise
F= (xy+x’y’+y’z)
Implement it with AND, OR and NOT gates
Implement it with only OR and NOT gates.
Implement it with only AND and not gates.

F’= (xy+x’y’+y’z)’ (X’)’=X F’)’ =F

=(x’+y’)(x+y)(y+z’)
(F’)’=F= ((x’+y’)(x+y)(y+z’))’ (A.B.C)’= A’+B’+C’
=(x’+y’)’+(x+y)’+(y+z’)’

F’= (xy)’(x’y’)’(y’z)’ F’ )’===F

(F’)’ = ((xy)’(x’y’)’(y’z)’)’

January 4, 2025
 2.6 Canonical and Standard Forms
Minterms and Maxterms
 A minterm (standard product): an AND term consists of
all literals in their normal form or in their complement
form.
 For example, two binary variables x and y,
 xy, xy', x'y, x'y'
 It is also called a standard product/minterms
 n variables con be combined to form 2n minterms.
 X=1 and x’=0 xyz= 111
 A maxterm (standard sums): an OR term
 It is also call a standard sum/maxterms
 2n maxterms. For n literals x+y+z 000
 X+y,x’+y,x+y’,x’+y’ x=0 and x’=1

January 4, 2025 42
Minterms and Maxterms
 Each maxterm is the complement of its corresponding
minterm, and vice versa.

January 4, 2025 43
Minterms and Maxterms
 An Boolean function can be expressed by
 A truth table
 Sum of minterms x y z= 1 1 1= xyz ====1
 f1 = x'y'z + xy'z' + xyz = m1 + m4 +m7 (Minterms)= sum of
product =sop== Boolean expression of the minterms
 f2 = x'yz+ xy'z + xyz'+xyz = m3 + m5 +m6 + m7 (Minterms)


Boolean function form by forming a minterm for each combination of

the variables which produces a 1 in fuction, then taking OR of all

those terms.

January 4, 2025 44
Minterms and Maxterms
 The complement of a Boolean f1 = m1 + m4 +m7
 The minterms that produce a 0
 f1' = m0 + m2 +m3 + m5 + m6 = (x'y'z'+x'yz'+x'yz+xy'z+xyz’)’
 f1 = (f1')’ product of maxterms/OR

 = (x+y+z)(x+y'+z) (x+y'+z') (x'+y+z')(x'+y'+z) = M0 M2 M3 M5 M6

 f2 = (x+y+z)(x+y+z')(x+y'+z)(x'+y+z)=M0M1M2M4
 Any Boolean function can be expressed as
 A sum of minterms (“sum” meaning the ORing of terms).
 A product of maxterms (“product” meaning the ANDing of
terms).
 Both boolean functions are said to be in Canonical form.

January 4, 2025 45
Sum of Minterms

Sum of minterms: there are 2n minterms and 22n
combinations of function with n Boolean variables.
 Example 2.4: express F = A+B’C as a sum of minterms.
 F = A+B'C = A (B+B') + B'C = AB +AB' + B'C = AB(C+C') +
AB'(C+C') + (A+A')B'C = ABC+ABC'+AB'C+AB'C'+A'B'C
 F = A'B'C +AB'C' +AB'C+ABC'+ ABC = m1 + m4 +m5 + m6 + m7
 F(A, B, C) = S(1, 4, 5, 6, 7)
 or, built the truth table first

January 4, 2025
46
 Sum of Minterms
 Sum of minterms: n-literals , 2n minterms ,


22n combinations of function
 Example 2.4: express F = A+B’C as a sum of minterms.
F=A+B’C =A(B+B’)(C+C’) +(A+A’)B’C
=ABC+ABC’+AB’C+AB’C’+AB’C+A’B’C
F= ABC+ABC’+AB’C+AB’C’+A’B’C
=ACB+AC’B+ACB’+AC’B’+A’CB’
=111+110+101+100+001
=m1+m4+m5+m6+m7
 F(A, C,B) = S(1, 4, 5, 6, 7)

January 4, 2025 47
 Product of Maxterms
 Product of maxterms: using distributive law to expand.
 x + yz = (x + y)(x + z) = (x+y+zz')(x+z+yy') = (x+y+z)(x+y+z')
(x+y'+z)
 Example 2.5: express F = xy + x'z as a product of
maxterms.
 F = xy + x'z = (xy + x')(xy +z) = (x+x')(y+x')(x+z)(y+z) = (x'+y)
(x+z)(y+z)
 x'+y = x' + y + zz' = (x'+y+z)(x'+y+z’)
 X+z=x+yy’+z=(x+y+z)(x+y’+z)
 Y+z=xx’+y+z=(x+y+z)(x’+y+z)
 F = (x+y+z)(x+y'+z)(x'+y+z)(x'+y+z') = M0M2M4M5
 (0 0 0)(010)(100)(101) =M0M2M4M5
=
 F(x, y, z) = P(0, 2, 4, 5)

January 4, 2025 48
 sum of minterms and product of maxterms
 F(A,B,C,D)=D(A’+B)+B’D
Sum of minterm:
DA’+DB+B’D = A’(B+B’)(C+C’)D +(A+A’)B(C+C’)D+(A+A’)
(C+C’)B’D
=A’(BC+BC’+B’C+B’C’)D + (AB+A’B)(CD+C’D)+
(AC+AC’+A’C+A’C’)B’D
=A’BCD+A’BC’D+A’B’CD+A’B’C’D+ABCD+ABC’D+A’BCD
+A’BC’D+AB’CD+AB’C’D+A’BCD+A’B’C’D
=0111+0101+0011+0001+1111+1101+0111+0101+1011+1
001+0111+0001
=m7+m5+m3+m1+m15+m13+m11+m9 =
F=P(1,3,5,7,9,11,13,15)
F’=P(0,2,4,6,8,10,12,14) complement of POS=SOP
January 4, 2025 49
 sum of minterms and product of maxterms

D(A’+B)+B’D= DA’+DB+B’D =D
F’=P(0,2,4,6,8,10,12,14)
=(A+B+C+D)(A+B+C’+D)(A+B’+C+D)
(A+B+C+D)(A+B+C’+D)(A+B’+C+D)

AA’+BB’+CC’+D
=(A+B+CC’+D)(A+B’+CC’+D)(A’+B+CC’+D)(A’+B’+CC’+D)
=(A+B+C+D)(A+B+C’+D)(A+B’+C+D)(A+B’+C’+D)
(A’+B+C+D)(A’+B+C’+D)(A’+B’+C+D)(A’+B’+C’+D)
=M0 M2 M4 M8M10 M14 M12M6

January 4, 2025 50
Conversion between Canonical Forms
 The complement of a function expressed as the sum of
minterms equals the sum of minterms missing from the
original function.
 F(A, B, C) = S(1, 4, 5, 6, 7) = m1+m4+m5+m6+m7
 Thus, F'(A, B, C) = S(0, 2, 3) = m0+m2+m3
 By DeMorgan's theorem (F’)’ =F (F)’ =F’
F(A, B, C) = P(0, 2, 3)
F'(A, B, C) =P (1, 4, 5, 6, 7)
 mj' = Mj
 Sum of minterms = product of maxterms
 Interchange the symbols S and P and list those numbers
missing from the original form
 S of 1's
 P of 0's

January 4, 2025 51
 Example
 F = xy + xz
 F(x, y, z) = S(1, 3, 6, 7)
 F(x, y, z) = P (0, 2, 4, 6)

January 4, 2025 52
 Standard Forms
 Canonical forms are very seldom the ones with the
least number of literals.
 Standard forms: the terms that form the function may
obtain one, two, or any number of literals.
 Sum of products: F1 = y'+ xy+ x'yz'
 Product of sums: F2 = x(y'+z)(x'+y+z')
 F3 = A'B'CD+ABC'D’
 Standard form is minimization of canonical form.
 Standard form is useful when to implement using logic
gates.
 Canonical form is useful when to implement using table.

January 4, 2025 53
 Implementation
 Two-level implementation

F1 = y' + xy+ x'yz' F2 = x(y'+z)(x'+y+z')

 Multi-level implementation

January 4, 2025 54
 2.7 Other Logic Operations (
 2n rows in the truth table of n binary variables.
 22n functions for n binary variables.
 16 functions of two binary variables.

 All the new symbols except for the exclusive-OR symbol are
not in common use by digital designers.
January 4, 2025 55
Boolean Expressions

January 4, 2025 56
2.8 Digital Logic Gates
 Boolean expression: AND, OR and NOT operations
 Constructing gates of other logic operations
 The feasibility and economy;
 The possibility of extending gate's inputs;
 The basic properties of the binary operations (commutative and
associative);
 The ability of the gate to implement Boolean functions.

January 4, 2025 57
Standard Gates
 Consider the 16 functions in Table 2.8 (slide 33)
 Two are equal to a constant (F0 and F15).
 Four functions with unary operations complement(F10,F12)
and transfer(F3,F5).
 The other Ten with binary operations : AND (F1), OR (F7),
NAND (F14), NOR (F8), XOR (F6), and equivalence (XNOR) (F9)
,inhibition(F2,F4), and implication(F11,F13).
 Complement: inverter.
 Transfer: buffer (increasing drive strength).
 Equivalence: XNOR.

January 4, 2025 58
Summary of Logic Gates

January 4, 2025
Figure 2.5 Digital logic gates
59
 Summary of Logic Gates

Figure 2.5 Digital logic gates

January 4, 2025 60
 Multiple Inputs
 Extension to multiple inputs
 A gate can be extended to multiple inputs.
 If its binary operation is commutative and associative.
 AND and OR are commutative and associative.
 OR
 x+y = y+x
 (x+y)+z = x+(y+z) = x+y+z
 AND
 xy = yx
 (x y)z = x(y z) = x y z

January 4, 2025 61
Multiple Inputs
 NAND and NOR are commutative but not associative → they
are not extendable.
 (x↓y) =(y ↓x) ---NOR
 (x↑y) =(y ↑ x) ---NAND
 (x ↓y) ↓z= [(x+y)’+z]’ = (x+y)z’ =xz’+yz’
 x ↓(y ↓z)= [x+(y+z)’]’ = x’(y+z) = x’y + x’z
 X ↑(Y ↑Z) =
Figure 2.6 Demonstrating the nonassociativity of the NOR operator;
(x ↓ y) ↓ z ≠ x ↓(y ↓ z)

(X ↑Y) ↑Z =

January 4, 2025 62
Multiple Inputs
 NAND and NOR are commutative but not associative → they
are not extendable.

Figure 2.6 Demonstrating the nonassociativity of the NOR operator;

(x ↓ y) ↓ z ≠ x ↓(y ↓ z)
January 4, 2025 63
Multiple Inputs
 Multiple NOR = a complement of OR gate, Multiple NAND = a
complement of AND.
 The cascaded NAND operations = sum of products.
 The cascaded NOR operations = product of sums.

Figure 2.7 Multiple-input and cascaded NOR and NAND gates

January 4, 2025 64
Multiple Inputs
 The XOR and XNOR gates are commutative and associative.
 Multiple-input XOR gates are uncommon?
 XOR is an odd function: it is equal to 1 if the inputs variables
have an odd number of 1’s.
 XNOR is an even function: it is equal to 1 if the inputs variables
have an even number of 1’s.

January 4, 2025
Figure 2.8 3-input XOR gate
65
Positive and Negative Logic
 Positive and Negative Logic
 Two signal values <=> two logic
values
 Positive logic: H=1; L=0
 Negative logic: H=0; L=1
 Consider a TTL gate
 A positive logic AND gate
 A negative logic OR gate
 The positive logic is used in this
book

Figure 2.9 Signal assignment and logic polarity

January 4, 2025 66
Positive and Negative Logic

Figure
January 4, 2025 2.10 Demonstration of positive and negative logic
67
 Positive and Negative Logic
Positive logic AND gate:

x Y Z
Negative Logic AND gate: (x’.y’)’
1 1 1
1 0 1
0 1 1
0 0 0

January 4, 2025 68
 Positive and Negative Logic
Positive logic OR gate: x Y Z
(x+y)
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
Negative Logic OR gate:
POSITIVE LOGIC AND= x Y Z
(x’+y’)’
NEGATIVE LOGIC OR 1 1 1
1 0 0
POSITIVE LOGI OR= 0 1 0
0 0 0
NEGATIVE LOGIC AND

January 4, 2025 69
 2.9 Integrated Circuits
Level of Integration
 An IC (a chip)
 Examples:
 Small-scale Integration (SSI): < 10 gates
 Medium-scale Integration (MSI): 10 ~ 100 gates
 Large-scale Integration (LSI): 100 ~ xk gates
 Very Large-scale Integration (VLSI): > xk gates
 VLSI
 Small size (compact size)
 Low cost
 Low power consumption
 High reliability
 High speed

January 4, 2025 70
 Digital Logic Families
 Digital logic families: circuit technology
 TTL: transistor-transistor logic (dying?)
 ECL: emitter-coupled logic (high speed, high power
consumption)
 MOS: metal-oxide semiconductor (NMOS, high density)
 CMOS: complementary MOS (low power)
 BiCMOS: high speed, high density

January 4, 2025 71
 Digital Logic Families
 The characteristics of digital logic families
 Fan-out: the number of standard loads that the output of a typical
gate can drive.
 Power dissipation: it is the supplied power required to operate the
gate. This parameter is expressed in milliwatts and represents
the actual power dissipated in the gate.
 Propagation delay: the average transition delay time for the
signal to propagate from input to output.
 Noise margin: the minimum of external noise voltage that caused
an undesirable change in the circuit output.

January 4, 2025 72
CAD
 CAD – Computer-Aided Design
 Millions of transistors
 Computer-based representation and aid
 Automatic the design process
 Design entry
 Schematic capture
 HDL – Hardware Description Language
 Verilog, VHDL
 Simulation
 Physical realization
 ASIC, FPGA, PLD

January 4, 2025 73
 Chip Design
 Why is it better to have more gates on a single chip?
 Easier to build systems
 Lower power consumption
 Higher clock frequencies

 What are the drawbacks of large circuits?

 Complex to design
 Chips have design constraints
 Hard to test

 Need tools to help develop integrated circuits

 Computer Aided Design (CAD) tools
 Automate tedious steps of design process
 Hardware description language (HDL) describe circuits
 VHDL (see the lab) is one such system
January 4, 2025 74
Show that the dual of exclusive-OR is equal to its
complement.
Exclusieve-OR =F = x’y+xy’
Dual F= (x’+y)(x+y’) = x’y’+xy
F’= (x’y+xy’)’
= (x+y’)(x’+y)
= xy+x’y’
Exclusive-NOR
A majority gate is a digital ckt whose output is equal to 1 if
the majority of the inputs are 1’s. the output is 0 otherwise.
F= X’YZ+XY’Z+XYZ’+XYZ
X Y Z F
= X’YZ+XY’Z+XY
0 0 0 0
=X(Y’Z+Y)+X’YZ
0 0 1 0 =X(Y+Z)+X’YZ
0 1 0 0 =XY+XZ+X’YZ
=Y(X+X’Z)+XZ
0 1 1 1
=XY+YZ+XZ
1 0 0 0

1 0 1 1

1 1 0 1

1 1 1 1