2.

Site Exploration
• Site investigation, in general deals with
determining the suitability of the site
for the proposed construction.
 1.1 Purpose of site Exploration
 It is an attempt to understand the subsurface conditions such
as:
Soil and rock profile
Geological features of the region
Position and variation of ground water table
Physical properties of soil and rock
Contamination, if any
General data of adjacent structures, hydrological data,
topography, soil maps, seismicity, etc.
Site Investigation
Failures
Sinkholes Leaning Tower of Pisa
 Number of Boring
• Boring is an expensive job.
• One should minimize the number of boring for a
construction in a given site but care should be
taken in choosing the location, it should be well
balance with the area.
• In general boring layout should not be random
• For example boring can be at each corner of the
building and one at the center
 Guidelines for Preliminary Investigation, (Teng)
Distance Between Boring (in meter) Minimum number
Project of boring for each
Horizontal Stratification of the soil structure

Uniform Average Erratic

Multi-storey Building 50 25 10 4

One or two storey 60 30 15 3

building

Bridge pier, abutments, 30 15 1 to 2 for each

tower, etc foundation unit

Highways 300 150 30

How Deep?
 How Deep (Bridges)?
• Boring depth is governed by various factors, including:
– Foundation type
– Foundation load
– Lowering of grade line at underpass?
– Channel relocation, widening,?
– Scour?
– Generally speaking, 50’- 80’ is reasonable(0.3*50)
– Local experience is helpful
– Look at nearby structures if available
– If no experience or other info available, plan for
long first hole, then adjust.
 Depth of Boring
According to Tomlinson, the following depth of
boreholes may be used:
 For widely spaced strip foundation, depth should
be deeper than 1.5x width of the foundation
 For raft foundation, depth should be 1.5x the
width of the raft
 For closely spaced strip or pad foundation,
where there is overlapping of zones of
pressure, the depth should be 1.5 times
the width of the building
 For group of pile foundation, the depth
should be deeper than 1.5xthe width of the
pile group or 2/3 of the length of the pile
 For piled foundation on rocks, boring
should be deeper than 3.0m inside
bedrock
 Depth of Boring
• For dams and water retaining structures
– Extend to depth of 0.5x base width of earth dams or 1
to 1.5 time the height of a small concrete dams
• For high embankment
– Extend to depth between 0.5 to 1.25 x horizontal
length of the side slope
• For deep cuts
– Extend to depth between 0.75 to 1 x the base width of
narrow cuts. With groundwater table, depth of 1.2 to
2.4m below the base
 1.2 Important aspects of Site Investigation
The three important aspects are planning,
execution and report writing.

 Planning
 To minimize cost of explorations and yet give reliable
data.
 To decide on quantity and quality depending on type,
size and importance of project and whether investigation
is preliminary or detailed.
 (Cont’d)…
 Execution:
Execution
 Collection of disturbed and/or
undisturbed samples of
subsurface strata from field.
 Conducting in-situ tests of
subsurface material and
obtaining properties directly or
indirectly.
 Study of ground water
conditions and collection of
sample for chemical analysis.
 Geophysical exploration, if
necessary.
 Laboratory testing on samples
 (Cont’d)…
Report writing:
 Description of site conditions – topographic features,
hydraulic conditions, existing structures, etc.
supplemented by plans/drawings.
 Description of nature, type and importance of
proposed construction
 Description of field and lab tests carried out.
 Analysis and discussion of data collected
 Preparation of charts, tables, graphs, etc.
 Calculations performed
 Recommendations
 (Cont’d)…
A complete site investigation will consist of:
Preliminary work
 Collecting general information and already existing
data such as study of geologic maps , seismic maps,
etc. at or near site.
 Study site history – if previously used as quarry,
agricultural land, industrial unit, etc.
Site Reconnaissance: Actual site inspection.
 To judge general suitability
 Decide exploration techniques
 (Cont’d)…
 Exploration
 Preliminary Investigations: Exploratory borings or
shallow test pits, representative sampling, geophysical
investigations, etc
 Detailed Investigations: Deep boreholes, extensive
sampling, in-situ testing, lab testing, etc.
 Depth and spacing: In general, depth of investigation
should be such that any/all strata that are likely to
experience settlement or failure due to loading.
Spacing depends upon degree of variation of surface
topography and subsurface strata in horizontal
direction.
 1.3 Purpose of Field Exploration
• Its main purpose is to find out the strength
characteristics of the sub-soil over which the
structure is to be built

• Generally, it analyze the nature in all aspect for

design and construction of buildings, highways,
bridges and other Civil Engineering Structures
Specific Purpose of Field Exploration

1. Selection of economical construction sites

2. Selection of types and depth of foundation

3. Selection of applicable method of construction

4. Evaluation of safety of existing structure

5. Location and selection of construction materials

 Data Taken from Field Exploration

• Soil parameter and properties of different layers

• Thickness of soil layer and depth of bedrock

• Location of ground water level

• Types and properties of different layers

 1.4 Planning Field Exploration Program
Things to be considered by the Soil Engineer

◦ Purpose of the program and relative cost

◦ Research on the history on the foundation successes and
failures
◦ He should be well informed about latest soil boring
methods, sampling and testing and latest equipment in
laboratory testing.
 Steps on Planning an actual
subsurface exploration program

1. Get all the available information on the type

and use of the structure and the site itself
2. Reconnaissance of the area
3. Preliminary site investigation
4. Detailed site investigation
 Document Review

Preliminary design information

•History of the site
•Aerial photographs and geologic maps
•Topographic maps
•Building codes and other specifications
•Documents at the local building department
 1.5 Methods of Field Exploration
The methods on determining the stratification
and engineering characteristics of sub-surface
soil are:
 Test pits
 Boring and sampling
 Field test
 Geophysical methods
 Laboratory tests
 Test pits
 It enable visual examination
 Simplest and cheapest
 Shallow depth
 Easy to obtain disturbed and undisturbed
samples
 Block samples from the bottom
 Tube samples from the sides
Test Pits
Soil Boring
Most widely used method

Provides samples from shallow to deeper depths

for visual inspection and laboratory tests
Commonly used methods of boring
 Auger Boring

 Wash Boring

 Percussion Drilling


 Auger Boring
 It can be operated manually or mechanically

 Hand augers are used in boring with a diameter of 15 to 20cm, and

to a depth of 3 to 6m in soft soil
 Mechanical augers (helical) are driven using power, it can go down
to great depth, even to 30m.
 Normally used for highways, railways and air fields

 Its disadvantage is that the samples are highly disturbed and it will
be difficult to locate the changes in soil strata
Samples of Auger
 Hand operated
augers

Power driven augers

Wash Boring

• It is power operated
• This method best suits in sandy and clayey soil and
not in a very hard strata or rocks
• Depth of boring could be up to 60m or more
• Changes in soil strata are indicated by changes in
the rate of progress of boring, examination of out
coming slurry
• Undisturbed samples can be obtained by using
proper samplers
Wash Boring Method
 Percussion Drilling
• Normally operated using power
• Hole is advanced by repeated blows of a heavy
chisel into the bottom of the hole
• Because of deep disturbance of the soil, this
method of boring is not favored
• The main advantage of this method is that it can
be used for all types of material
• The major disadvantage is that the material at the
bottom of the hole is disturbed by heavy blows of
the chisel
Percussion Drill and Hammer
Rock Coring
Rock coring is the process in which a sampler
consisting of a tube & core barrel with a cutting
bit at its lower end cuts an annular hole in a rock
mass, thereby creating a cylinder or core of rock
which is recovered in the core barrel. Rock cores
are normally obtained by rotary drilling.
The primary purpose of core drilling is to obtain
intact samples. The behavior of a rock mass is
affected by the presence of fractures in the rock.
The size and spacing of fractures, the degree of
weathering of fractures and the presence of soil
within the fractures are critical items.
Diamond Drill Bit

Tri cone drill bit

 Soil Sampling and Sample
Disturbance
1. Disturbed Samples – samples where the structure
of the natural soil has been disturbed to a
considerable degree by the action of boring tools.
It is satisfactory for performing classification tests
such as sieve analysis, Atterberg’s Limits, etc.
2. Undisturbed Samples – samples which represent
as closely as the practicable true in-situ structure
and water content of the samples. It is used to
determine the reliable information on the sheering
resistance and stress deformation characteristics
of the deposits
 Types of Soil Samplers
a. Split Spoon Sampler – A standard split spoon
sampler has a 51 mm outside diameter, 359mm
inside diameter tube, 457 to 762mm long. It is
split longitudinally in the middle. The sampler is
forced or driven into the soil to obtain a sample
and is then removed from the hole. Using this
sampler, disturbed sample of soft rock, cohesive
and cohesion less soils are obtained. This sampler
is used for making standard penetration test.
Split Spoon (Barrel) Sampler
• Suitable for stiff soil, sand gravel
• Thick-wall Steel Tubes
• 1.5” ID, 2.0” OD, 18”-30” long
Split Barrel Sampler
b. Shelby Tube (Thin-wall) Samplers

It is a thin-walled seamless brass or steel tubing

with a common outside diameter of 2-3 inches
and a length of 30-36 inches. In order to take the
sample, the sampler is pushed downward into the
soil by static force instead of being driven by a
hammer. This sampler is used to take undisturbed
samples from cohesive soil.
Shelby Tube Sampler
C. Piston Samplers

They are very thin tube samplers with pistons fitted

at their cutting ends. While taking the sample, the

piston is held in positions and the tube is pushed

down. The piston aids the retention of the soil in

the tube during withdrawal. Pistons samples provide

the best undisturbed samples of cohesive soil.

Piston Sampler
Characteristic Features of Good Samplers
A good sampler is able to collect a less disturbed
soil samples as possible.
The disturbance introduced in the collected sample
depends upon the design of the samplers and the
method of sampling.
The design features governing the degree of
disturbance of the sampler are:
◦ Cutting edge
◦ Inside wall friction
◦ Method of applying force
 d0

Sampling Tube

SAMPLING
TUBE
di

CUTTING
EDGE
Di

Do
 Cutting Edge
a. Area ratio – It represents the volume of the soil
displaced by the sampler as the ratio of the
sample volume. The larger the value of this ratio,
the larger the sample disturbance. If Ar is less
than 10%, the disturbance is considered
negligible. 2 2
D 0 Di
Ar  2
x100%
Di
Di internal diameter of the cutting edge
Do outer diameter of the cutting edge
 Cutting Edge
b. Inside Clearance (IC) – The value of inside
clearance should be as low as 1-3%. This reduces
the friction of resistance between the tube and
the sample. It also allows the slight expansion of
the soil sample on entering the tube and thus
assist in sample retention.

d i  Di
IC 
Di
Di internal diameter of the cutting edge
d i internal diameter of the sample tube
 Cutting Edge
c. Outside Clearance (OC) – The value of outside
should not be greater than the inside clearance. It
helps in reducing the force required to withdraw
the sampler. Normally, it lies between 0 and 2%.

Do  d o
OC 
do
D o external diameter of the cutting edge
d o external diameter of the sample tube
 Method of Applying Force

• The degree of disturbance depends upon the

method of applying force during sampling and
upon the rate of penetration of the sampler.
• For obtaining undisturbed samples, the sampler
should be pushed and not driven.
 Field (In-situ) Test
• Advantages:
– They are usually less expensive, so greater number of tests can
be performed and gives detailed characteristic of the soil.
– The test results are available immediately.

• Disadvantages:
– No sample is obtained, thus making soil classification more
difficult.
– The engineer has less control over confining stresses and
drainage.
 Field (In-situ) Test
• In most cases, we must use empirical correlations
and calibrations to convert In-situ test results to
appropriate engineering properties for design.
•

• Most of these correlations were developed for

clays of low to moderate plasticity and may not be
appropriate for special soils.
Most Commonly Used Field Tests

• Penetration or Sounding Test

• Vane Shear Test

• Pressure Meter Test

• Plate Loading Test

 Penetration Test
This test is conducted mainly to get information on the
relative density of soil with little or no cohesion.
It is based on the fact that the relative density of the
soil stratum is directly proportional to the resistance
of the soil against the penetration of the drive point.
The correlation between values of penetration
resistance against angle of internal friction, bearing
pressure, density and modulus of compressibility have
been developed.
 Static Cone Penetration Test
Dutch Cone Penetro meter Test –
This method is widely used in Europe.
The test consists of a cone with an apex angle of
600, overall diameter of 35.7mm, end area of
10cm2, rods (5/8” diameter), casing pipe (3/4”
diameter).
The rod is pushed hydraulically into the ground at
a rate of 10-20mm/sec. Readings are usually taken
every 20cm.
From this test, point resistance and skin frictional
resistance can be determined separately.
 Steps of Dutch Cone Penetrometer Test
1. The cone system is stationary at position 1.
2. The cone is advanced by pushing an inner rod to
extrude the cone tip and a short length of cone
shaft. This action measures the tip resistance, qc.
3. The outer shaft is now advanced to the cone
base, and skin resistance is measured as the force
necessary to advance the shaft, qs.
4. The cone and sleeve are advanced in combination
to obtain position 4 and to obtain qtotal which is
approximately the sum of qs and qc.
Operation Sequence of SPT
 Correlation Between Cone Resistance and Relative
Density of the Frictional Soil
Relative Density Point Resistance (kN/m2)

Very loose soil <2500

Loose soil 2500-5000

Medium dense 5000-10000

Dense 10000-15000

Very dense >15000

 Standard Penetration Number
According to Meyerhof
N  1 (Ckd )
4
N standard penetration number
C kd static cone resistance

For sand, the modulus of compressibility (E s ) can

be estimated from cone resistance using the following
relationship :
Es  3 (C kd )
2
Correction to the Observed SPT Values

• Three types of correction are normally applied to

the observed N values. They are:
1. Hammer Efficiency Correction

2. Drill rod, sampler and borehole correction

3. Correction due to overburden pressure

Drill Rod, Sampler and Borehole
Corrections
Correction Factor for Overburden
Pressure in Granular Soils, CN
Eq. 9.5

Eq. 9.6
Factors affecting the reliability of the data

• Changes in standards

• Variation in the test procedures

• Poor workmanship

• Reliability of the crew and the equipment to be used

Nowadays, automatic hammers are used instead of
manual hammers for the reliability of the result
 Advantages of SPT Over Other In-situ
Test Method
1. It obtains sample of soil being tested and permits
direct soil classification.

2. It is very fast and inexpensive because it is

perform in borings that would have been drilled.

3. All drill rigs used for soil exploration are equipped

to perform this test, whereas, other in-situ tests
require specialized equipment that may not be
 Soil Characteristics that are
Correlated to SPT No.

• Density, D
• Angle of shearing resistance, Ф
• Unconfined compressive strength, qu
 Correlation Between N,Ф, and
Relative Density
N 0-4 4-10 10-30 30-50 >50

Ф (Degrees) <28 28-30 30-36 35-40 >42

Relative Very loose Loose Medium Dense Very dense

density dense
 Correlation Between N, qu, and
Consistency of Cohesive Soil
N 0-2 2-4 4-8 8-15 15-30 >30

qu(kN/m2) 0-25 25-50 50-100 100-200 200-400 >400

Consistency Very soft Soft Medium Stiff Very stiff Hard

 Relationship Between SPT Parameter
• The relationship between Ф and Dr can be
expressed approximately by the following equation
according to Meyerhof
 Field Vane Shear Test (VST)
• SPT and CPT are use to correlate the resistance of driving
a sampler(N-Value) or pushing a cone(qc) to determine
some engineering properties like density and etc
• The vane shear test is a different in-situ field test
because it directly measures a specific soil property, the
undrained shear strength su of clay.
Un drained Shear Strength, su
 Vane Shear Test
• Some things to be considered in performing the
vane shear test to get the reliable values:
– The vane can provide Su which is too high if the vane
is rotated rapidly
– The vane also gives an unreliable results for clay
strata that contains sand layers or clay that contains
gravel or gravel size clay fragments
 The Subgrade Modulus, ks
The graph of the stress, q versus the penetration,
δ is used to determine the yield point, at which
the penetration rapidly increases with load.
The subgrade modulus is then estimated which
correspond to the half of the yield point using the
following formula
q
k 

 Other Use of Plate Load Test
It can be used to directly estimate the settlement
potential of a footing.
The empirical equation that relates the depth of
penetration of the steel plate, S, is:
4 S1
S 2
 D1 
1  
 D
S1 depth of penetration of the steel plate
S settlement of the actual footing
D1 smallest dimension of the steel plate
D smallest dimension of the actual footing
 Geophysical Method
Geophysical method is used for preliminary
investigation of sub-soil strata.
It is used for rapid evaluation of the sub-soil
characteristics
However, these methods are very approximate
For detailed and reliable results, the conventional
methods of drilling hole, taking sample, and
testing it in the laboratory must be used.
Two categories of geophysical method
◦ Seismic Methods
◦ Electrical Resistivity
 Seismic Refraction Method
• This method is based from the principle that the elastic
shock waves have different velocities in different
materials.
• At the interface of different materials, the waves get
partially reflected and refracted
• This method of subsurface exploration uses mainly the
refracted waves
• This is more suited for shallow exploration for civil
 (Cont’d)…
• The shock wave is created by a hammer blow or by
a small explosive charge at point A.
• The waves will travel through the top layers of the
soil or rock with the velocity V1, depending on the
material on layer 1.
• The observation of the first arrival of the waves is
recorded by geophones located at points D’s.
• The vibration is then converted to electrical
 (Cont’d)…
The general types of soil or rocks can be determined for these
velocities. The depth H1 of the top strata can be estimated from the
from the formula
d1 V2  V1
H1 
2 V2  V1
The thickness of the second layer H 2 is obtained from
d 2 V3  V2
H 0.85H1 
2 V3  V2
The procedure is then continued if there are more than
three layers
 Limitations of Seismic Refraction Method

1. This method can not be used if the upper layer

has greater seismic velocity than the lower one

2. It can not be used over pavement like concrete,

asphalt and the like

3. If the area has underground features such as

conduits the results become unmanageable.

4. It can not be use in frozen areas

 Electrical Resistivity Method
• The methods depends on the differences on the electrical
resistance of different soil or rock types.
• The flow of current through the soil is due to electrolytic
action which depends on the salt content in the pores.
• Each soil has its own resistivity depending upon on the
water content, compaction, composition and other
factors
 (Cont’d)…

• The method of experiment will be

– Four electrodes, normally metals, are drive into the
ground of equal distances, this is called Wenner
Method.
– The two outer electrodes are known as current
electrodes and the two inner are called potential
electrodes.
– The mean resistivity of the strata is determined by
applying a DC current to the outer electrodes and by
measuring the voltage drop between the inner
electrodes.
– A current of 50 to 100 milliamp is usually applied
 The Apparent Resistivity, R
The potential drop E for the surface current flow lines is measured
by means of the inner electrodes. The apparent resistivity, R, is
given by the equation
2AE
R
I
A in centimeters
E volts
I in ampheres
R ohm - cm
 (Cont’d)…
• The previous figure will determine the mean resistivity
to a depth approximately equal to the spacing of
electrodes
• The test is repeated after changing the spacing and
again determining the resistivity.
• This method is called resistivity mapping which is used
to establish boundaries between different strata.
• It is generally used to locate sand and gravel deposits
within fine grained soil deposits
 (Cont’d)…
• For studying the vertical changes the electrode is
expanding about a fixed central point, a small increment of
distances is applied up to the desired depth of exploration.
• This method is known as resistivity sounding

• This method can indicate sub-surface variation when hard

layer overlies a soft layer or vice versa.
• It can also be used to locate the water table
 Limitations of Resistivity Method
• This method is capable only to detect strata
having different electrical resistivity
• The results are influenced by surface irregularities,
wetness of the strata and electrolyte
concentration of the ground water
• The service of an expert is needed in the
interpretation of the results
 Common Laboratory Test
• Grain Size Analysis • Unit Weight
• Atterberg;s Limit • Unconfined
• Natural Moisture Compression Test
Content • Direct Shear Test
• Triaxial Compression • Consolidation Test
Test • Compaction Test
• Chemical Analysis
 Laboratory Test
• These are useful in providing reliable data for
calculating the:
– ultimate bearing capacity of soils,

– stability and settlement behavior of foundation and

– determining the physical characteristics of the soil

– Results of laboratory test should be used in conjunction

with borehole records and results form field test
 1.7 Groundwater Measurement
• Groundwater affects many elements of foundation design
and construction
• It should be established accurately by exploratory
investigation
• The depth of water table is measured by lowering a chalk
coated steel tape in the borehole
• Other method is by lowering a lead of electrical circuits
 (Cont’d)…

• In soil with high permeability. The level of ground

water stabilizes in 24 hours.
• With lower permeability such as silt, fine silty sand
and clay, it may take several days or weeks.
• With the second case, a piezometer is installed to
periodically check the water level until it stabilizes.
 1.8 Transportation of Samples to
Laboratory for Testing's
• Samples should be properly sealed with wax to
preserve the loss of moisture.
• They should be properly labeled to indicate the
number of borehole and the depth at which they
are taken
• Samples should be packed in wooden boxes

• Care should be taken if there is no vibration

 1.8 Soil Exploration Report & Data
Presentation
The result of boring, sampling, penetration tests
and lab tests of the site should be plotted
graphically. It should include
◦ A plot plan showing the location of borehole
◦ A plot showing the soil profile from drilling
◦ Soil profile along given line on the ground surface
showing the different layers, like soft clay layers
◦ The penetration number, unconfined compression
strength, Atterberg’s limit, natural moisture content and
other laboratory data
◦ The location of ground water table should be indicated
in the soil profile
 Soil Exploration Report
The report should contain all available data from
boreholes, test pits, field and laboratory test and
site exploration.
Most reports have the following contents
1.Introduction
2.General description of the site
3.General geology of the area
4.Details of the field exploration program,
indicating the number of borings, location and
depth
 Soil Exploration Report
5. Details on the methods of exploration
6. Description of the soil condition found in
boreholes
7. Discussion of the laboratory test results
8. Discussion of the results of investigation in
relation to foundation design and construction
9. Recommendation on the type and depth of
foundation, allowable bearing pressure and
method of construction
10. Conclusion`