EE-211

ELECTRICAL NETWORK
ANALYSIS (LEC-4)
INSTRUCTOR: DR AHMAD RAUF SUBHANI
DEPT. OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
COLLEGE OF ELECTRICAL AND MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
NUST
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RECAP
• We studied about energy storage elements, L and C
• We focused on two particular responses:
• Transient response to DC signal of the type x(t) = Xm (investigated using time-domain techniques)
• AC response to the AC signal of the type x(t) = Xm cos(ω t + ) (investigated using freq-domain
techniques, time-domain techniques are possible but more laborious)

• Now we are starting the response to a more general class of forcing function called the
complex exponential signal of the type
• These signals cannot be generated in labs but they constitute the most powerful
analytical tool.
dx/dt = sXm e^st
= sx(t)
d2x/dt2 = s^2 x(t) 2
NETWORK FUNCTIONS
• Complex exponential signal is of the type

𝑗𝜃 ( 𝜎 + 𝑗 𝜔) 𝑡 𝜎 𝑡 + 𝑗 ( 𝜃+ 𝜔 𝑡 )
𝑥 ( 𝑡 )= 𝑋 𝑚 𝑒 𝑒 = 𝑋𝑚𝑒

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• S is the complex frequency, its units are complex nepers/second
COMPLEX FREQUENCY
𝑗𝜃 ( 𝜎 + 𝑗 𝜔) 𝑡 𝜎 𝑡 + 𝑗 ( 𝜃+ 𝜔 𝑡 )
( )
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑋𝑚𝑒 𝑒 = 𝑋𝑚𝑒

Complex signal:

• The above expression can also represent a real signal

Real signal:
AC signal:
=0 𝑥 ( 𝑡 )= 𝑋 𝑚 𝑒 𝜎 𝑡 , 𝑤h𝑒𝑛 𝜃= 𝜔=0
DC signal: ω==0 4
EXAMPLE

• Assuming

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PRACTICE
•

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GENERALIZED IMPEDANCE AND ADMITTANCE

• Generalized impedance is defined as

• Generalized admittance is defined as

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S-DOMAIN CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
• Replace input and output by their phasors
• Replace R, L and C by their generalized impedances
• Carry out the phasor analysis techniques

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NETWORK FUNCTIONS
• The input x(t) and the output y(t) of a linear network are related by a differential
equation

• We get

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NETWORK FUNCTIONS
•

• Network function is defined as

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NETWORK FUNCTIONS
•

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POLES AND ZEROS
•

• Poles and zeros can be real, imaginary or complex, in case of imaginary or complex they
always appear in conjugate pairs
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PRACTICE
•

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PROCEDURE TO FIND AND CHECK NETWORK FUNCTION
•

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PRACTICE
•a

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NATURAL RESPONSE USING H(S)
• If

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IMPORTANT CASES
1.

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IMPORTANT CASES
2.

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IMPORTANT CASES
3.

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IMPORTANT OBSERVATIONS
•

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IMPORTANT OBSERVATIONS
•a

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PRACTICE
•a

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COMPLETE RESPONSE USING H(S)

• DC steady state response

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COMPLETE RESPONSE USING H(S)
• The AC steady state response

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PRACTICE
•

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COMPLETE RESPONSE
•

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FREQUENCY RESPONSE
• The manner in which the AC response varies with frequency is known as the frequency
response
• Frequency response can be predicted mathematically using the network function and
calculating it on axis.
•

• This plotting is best done on semilogarithmic scales due to numerous reasons

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SEMILOGARITHMIC SCALES
•a

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SEMILOGARITHMIC SCALES

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DECIBELS
•a

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SOME PROPERTIES
•

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SEMILOG GRAPH PAPER
•

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BODE PLOTS

• The transfer function can be written as

• Taking the natural logarithm of both sides,

• The real part of lnH is a function of the magnitude while the imaginary part is the phase.

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THE MAGNITUDE PLOT
• In a Bode magnitude plot, the gain

• is plotted in decibels (dB) versus frequency

• A transfer function may be written in terms of factors that have real and imaginary
parts. One such representation might be

• The above representation of H(ω) is called the standard form.

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NETWORK FUNCTION BUILDING BLOCKS

• In constructing a Bode plot, we plot each factor separately and then combine them
graphically.
• The factors can be considered one at a time and then combined additively because of
the logarithms involved.

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STRAIGHT LINE GRAPHS-CONSTANT TERM K.
• If K is positive, the magnitude remains 20 |K| and the phase is 0◦.
• If K is negative, the magnitude remains 20 |K| but the phase is ±180◦.

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STRAIGHT LINE GRAPHS-POLE/ZERO AT THE ORIGIN.
• F or the zero (jω) at the origin, the magnitude is 20 ω and the phase is 90◦.
• The Bode plots for the pole are similar except that the slope of the magnitude plot is
−20 dB/decade while the phase is −90◦.

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STRAIGHT LINE GRAPHS- SIMPLE POLE/ZERO

• showing that we can approximate the magnitude as zero (a straight linewith zero slope)
for small values of ω and by a straight line with slope 20 dB/decade for large values of
ω. The frequency ω = z1 where the two asymptotic lines meet is called the corner
frequency or break frequency. Approximate plot is close to the actual plot except at the
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break frequency, where ω = z1 and the deviation is 20 log10|(1 + j1)| = 20 log10 √2 =
3dB.
STRAIGHT LINE GRAPHS- SIMPLE POLE/ZERO
•

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STRAIGHT LINE GRAPHS- QUADRATIC POLE/ZERO

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STRAIGHT LINE GRAPHS- QUADRATIC POLE/ZERO

• Note that the actual plot depends on the damping factor ζ2 as well as the corner frequency
ωn. The significant peaking in the neighborhood of the corner frequency should be added
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to the straight-line approximation if a high level of accuracy is desired. However, we will
use the straight-line approximation for the sake of simplicity.
STRAIGHT LINE GRAPHS- QUADRATIC POLE/ZERO
• The phase can be expressed as

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STRAIGHT LINE GRAPHS- QUADRATIC POLE/ZERO
•

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SUMMARY OF BODE STRAIGHT-LINE MAGNITUDE AND PHASE PLOTS.

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SUMMARY OF BODE STRAIGHT-LINE MAGNITUDE AND PHASE PLOTS.

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SUMMARY OF BODE STRAIGHT-LINE MAGNITUDE AND PHASE PLOTS.

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PRACTICE
•

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PRACTICE
•

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CREDITS AND REFERENCES
The images and information used in the preparation of these slides have been taken from
1. Electric Circuits Fundamentals, 1st Edition, by Sergio Franco, Oxford English Press
1995.
2. Fundamentals of Electric Circuits, 3rd Edition, by Charles K. Alexander & Matthew N.
O. Sadiku, McGraw Hill 2003.

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