CARTILAGE

CARTILAGE

• Cartilage is a specialized dense connective tissue. It is hard but not rigid

like bone.
• They are rigid structures, hence provide protection & support the organs.
They can withstand the effect of pressure, pull or torsion.
• They are present in the body where elasticity & rigidity is required.
• They are avascular structures, nourished by diffusion from adjacent
tissues.
• Repair of cartilage is slow & takes time due to its avascularity.
• Cartilage consist of
1. Cells called chondrocytes
2. Fibers
3. Ground substance
Based on the type of fibre present in the matrix, the cartilage are classified into
three types .
– Hyaline
– Elastic &
– Fibro cartilage.
 Hyaline cartilage

• It appears transparent glass like in fresh

condition.
• It is covered by a vascular fibrous membrane
called perichondrium. The perichondrium has
an outer fibrous layer & inner cellular layer. The
cellular layer consist of chondroblast
(immmature chondrocytes).
• The Matrix Contain Collagen Fibers (Type 2)
Which Run In Parallel Bundles
• The chondrocytes are placed in matrix.
• They are arranged in groups of two ,four & six.
This arrangements is called “the cell nest
condition”
• The ground substance is made up of
carbohydrates & proteins.
Distribution of hyaline cartilage

1. Costal cartilage of ribs

2. Cartilage covering the articulating surface of
the bones.
3. Cartilage of larynx – thyroid & cricoid
cartrilage.
4. The tracheal rings.
 ELASTIC CARTILAGE
• Structurally the elastic cartilage is
mainly made up of elastic fibers & the
chondrocytes.
• The surface of the elastic cartilage is
covered by “perichondrium”
• More flexible than hyaline cartilage
 Distributions of elastic cartilage
• Pinna of the external ear
• Epiglottis, corniculate & cuneiform
cartilage of larynx.
• Medial part of the auditory tube.
 Fibro cartilage (white fibrocartilage)
• Structurally the white
fibrocartilage contains mainly
thick bundles of collagen fibers
(type 1) & a few chondrocytes.
• It has no perichondrium
• It is very tough & strong but
resilient.
• It has great tensile strength &
considerable elasticity.
Distribution of Fibro cartilage
• Articular disc of the temporomandibular joint
& sternoclavicular joint.
• Intervertebral discs present between the
bodies of vertebrae.
• Glenoidal labrum of shoulder joint.
• Acetabular labrum of hip joint.
• Menisci of the knee joint.
Growth of the cartilage
Cartilage grows by two mechanism
BONES
 BONES
• Bones is a highly vascular living connective
tissue in which the matrix is calcified by the
deposition of calcium phosphate.
• The human skeleton consists of 206 bones.
 FUNCTIONS OF BONES
 Bones Gives shape & support to the body, &
resist any forms of stress.
 These provide surface for the attachment of
muscles, tendons, ligaments, etc.
Functions of bones

 These serve as lever for muscular actions.

 The skull, vertebral column & thoracic cage protect
brain, spinal cord & thoracic & some abdominal
viscera, respectively
 Bone marrow manufactures blood cells.
 Bone stores 97% of the body calcium & phosphorous.
 Bone marrow contains reticuloendothelial cells which
are phagocytic in nature & take part in immune
responses of the body.
 The large paranasal air sinuses, e.g. ethmoidal
sinuses affect the timbre of the voice.
 MACROSCOPIC STRUCTURE OF A
BONE
 The Long Bone consist of two ends & a
shaft.
 The shaft consist of a cylindrical cavity
inside called medullary cavity, which is
filled with bone marrow. The outer part
of the shaft is made up of compact bone.
 The two ends of the long bone are
filled with tiny plates of bone containing
numerous spaces. This is referred as
“spongy bone” to which the medullary
cavity does not extend.
 MACROSCOPIC STRUCTURE OF A
BONE
 The outer surface of the bone is
covered by a highly vascular
connective tissue membrane
called “periosteum” except at the
articular surfaces. This articular
surface is covered by articular
cartilage, usually hylaine type.

 The medullary cavity is lined by

the another connective tissue
membrane called endosteum.
 BONE MARROW

• It is the vascular connective tissue present

in the cavity of the bone.
• The bone marrow differs in composition in
different bones & at different ages. It occurs
in two forms, yellow marrow & red marrow.
• The red marrow is actively engaged in the
production of blood cells.
• The yellow marrow derives bits colour from
the large quantity of fat cells it contains.
• At birth the red marrow is present
throughout the skeleton.
• After about fifth year of post natal life, the
red marrow is gradually replaced in the long
bones by yellow marrow.
 MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURE OF A
BONE
 COMPACT BONE
 The Compact Bone Is
Made Up Of ‘Lamellae’
 Lamellae are thin plates
of bone consisting of
collagen fibers
embedded in ground
substance.
 Lamellae are placed one
over another.
 The space between the
lamellae are called
‘lacunae’.
 Lacunae are occupied by
osteocytes.
 MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURE OF A
BONE
 COMPACT BONE
 The adjacent lacunae
are connected through
canaliculi which are
occupied by the
cytoplasmic process of
osteocytes.
 Most of the lamellae
are arranged in the
form of concentric rings
that surround a
‘Haversian Canal’ which
is present at the centre
of each rings.
 MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURE OF A
BONE
 COMPACT BONE
 Haversian canals are
placed parallel to
medullary cavity & they
are occupied by blood
vessels & nerve fibers.
 Adjacent haversian canals
are connected by
volkman’s canal.
 One haversian canal &
lamellae around it
constitute a haversian
system or an osteon.
 COMPONENTS OF BONE
• An adult long bone consist of following components
1. Bone cells
2. Matrix
 Bone cells
1. Osteoprogenitor cells
2. Osteoblasts
3. Osteocytes
4. Osteoclast
 Matrix (Ground substance)
The matrix of the bone consist of both
• Organic (25%) &
• Inorganic constituents. (75%)
Bone cells
1. Osteoprogenitor cells
• These are stem cells of mesenchymal origin that can
proliferate & convert themselves into osteoblast
whenever there is need for bone formation.
2. Osteoblast
 These are bone forming cells.
 They are more numerous in periosteum.
 The cells are ovoid, triangular or cuboidal in shape with
oval nucleus.
 These cells are responsible for laying down the organic
matrix of bone including the collagen fibres.
 They are responsible for the calcification of matrix.
Bone cells
3. osteocytes
 These are mature bone cells.
 They are derived from osteoblasts after they have
laid down the matrix.
 They are present in the lacunae of the bone
between the lamellae.
 Osteocytes show many cytoplasmic processes,
which establish connections with other osteocytes.
 Osteoytes maintain the integrity of the lacunae &
thus kep open the channels for diffusion of
nutrients.
4. Osteoclasts
 These are bone removing cells & found in
relation to the surface of the bone.
 Osteoclasts are multinucleated large cells.
 The lysosomes present in their cytoplasm contain
‘acid phosphate’
 Osteoclasts are involved in demineralization &
removal of bone matrix.
 Osteoclasts are stimulated by parathyroid
hormone.
Organic constituents.

• It is mainly made up of collagen fibers.

• These collagen fibers are embedded in
proteins, carbohydrates & water.
• The collagen fibers are responsible for
toughness & resilience of bone. These fibers
are synthesized by osteoblast.
• Chondroitin sulphate is another importamt
organic constituent of the bone.
Inorganic constituents.

• Following mineral salts are present;

1. Calcium phosphate (85%)
2. Calcium carbonate (10%)
3. Small amount of calcium fluoride & magnesium
phosphate.
• Most of the calcium, phosphate & hydroxyl
ions are in the form of needle-shaped
crystals called “hydroxyapatite crystals”
• These crystals lie parallel to the collagen
fibers.
 OSSIFICATION
• The process of bone formation is called
ossification.
• All the bones are developed from the
mesenchymal tissue of the embryo.
• Development of bone tissue starts before birth
& completed by 21 year of life.
• There are two mechanism of bone formation:
1. Intra membranous ossification
2. Endo chondral ossification
 Membranous ossification

• The embryonic mesenchymal tissue will

directly from the bone, e.g. bone of the cranial
vault, mandible, & clavicle.
Cartilaginous ossification

• The mesenchymal tissue is first transformed

into a cartilage. Later this cartilage is ossified to
form a bone.
OSSIFICATION OF A LONG BONE
• The ossification begins in one or more areas of
future bone model.
• These areas are called centres of ossification.
Primary center of ossification
 The ossififcation starts in the central part of the
cartilaginous model (i.e at the centre of the future shaft).
 The portions of the long bone developed from this
primary centre of ossification is called ‘diaphysis’.
 The primary centre of ossification normally appears
before birth.
OSSIFICATION OF A LONG BONE
Secondary center of ossification
 These centres appear at the two ends of the long bone
usually after birth.
 The portion of the long bone developed from secondary
centre of ossification is called ‘Epiphysis’.
 The two ends of the diaphysis, which are actively
involved in growth, are called ‘Metaphyses’.
 In a long bone between epiphysis & diaphysis is a part of
the cartilage remains unossified until epiphysis fuses
with diaphysis & it is called ‘epiphyseal plate’.
 They also undergo ossification at puberty.
 Parts of developing long bone
1. Epiphysis is the part of the bone, which
develops from the secondary centre of
ossifications, e.g. ends of the long bones.
2. Diaphysis is the part of the bone, which
develops from the primary centre of
ossification , eg. Shaft of the long bones.
3. Metaphysis is the zones of the bone where
active growth is seen. It is present at the
junction of the epiphysis & diaphysis of the
long bone.
 Blood supply to a long bone
1. Nutrient artery :
 It enters the shaft through a nutrient with one or two veins.
 On reaching the bone marrow cavity they divide into ascending & descending branches.
2. Epiphseal arteries :
 They are several in numbers & enters the bone near the ends.
3. Metaphyseal arteries :
 They enter the bone along the line of attachment of capsular ligament (near the articular end).
4. Periosteal arteries :
 They are numerous &enter the bone along the muscular attachment.
 Branches of all these ateries from a rich sinusoidal plexus in bone marrow.
 Many branches from the plexus enter haversian canal.
 These vessels provide blood to the superficial osteons of the shaft.
 During endochondral ossification, these vessels also enter the epiphyses providing blood to the
secondary ossification centers.
 Following the closure of epiphyses all these sets of vessels become extensively interconnected.
 Diseases affecting the bones
 Osteoporosis – a reduction in organic & inorganic components of bone
to a degree that compromises normal function.
 The bone becomes brittle ,lose their elasticity, & fracture easily .
 Bone scanning will reveal the reduction of bone mass.
 osteomalacia – softening of bone due to decrease in the mineral
content.
 Achondroplasia : A condition resulting from abnormal epiphyseal activity.
 the epiphyseal plate grows unusually slow& the individual develops short,
stocky limbs.
 The trunk is normal in size & sexual & mental development remains unaffected.
 Rickets : a disorder that reduces the amount of calcium salts in the
skeleton.
 It is characterised by a bowlegged appearance.
 Osteomylitis :