General

Psychology
Week #10: social psychology
Dr. Nur İnci Namlı
[email protected]
Office no: B1-54
 Definition of social psychology

Relationship of social psychology with other

sciences

History of social psychology

Summary
Most studied concepts in social psychology

Popularized experiments in social psychology

• Milgram and obedience experiment

• Asch and conformity experiment
• Zimbardo and Stanford prison experiment
• Festinger and cognitive dissonance experiment
• Muzaffer Şerif and Robbers Cave experiment
• Darley and Latene and bystander effect experiment
• Tajfel and social identity experiment
What is social
psychology?
• Some questions:
• Who is a leader?
• What are the motivations underlying aggressive
behavior?
• How are people's feelings, thoughts, and behaviors
affected by other people?
• Why do people show friendship or hostility towards each
other?
• How do values, beliefs, attitudes, and contradictions
affect human behavior?

• Social psychology is a branch of psychology that

examines how individuals' thoughts, feelings, and
behaviors are affected in a social environment.
• Social Psychology is defined as the scientific effort to
understand and explain the way individuals' thoughts,
feelings, and behaviors are affected by the real,
imagined, or implied existence of others.
Relationship of social psychology with other
sciences
Major Social
Psychology
topics:
interpersonal
relationships,
Common topics: attitudes, small Common
roles, groups themes:
organizations perception,
motivation
Related natural
sciences:
physiology,
Psycholog genetics,
Sociolog y biochemistry
Related social
sciences: y
history,
economics,
political Anthropolog
y
science
Common themes:
culture,
personality,
 • Late 19th century: Social psychology emerged as a
bridge between psychology and sociology. The first
social psychology studies focused on how people's
behaviors changed due to the presence of others.
• First half of the 20th century: In the 1920s and 1930s,
social psychology was influenced by behaviorism and

History of
Gestalt psychology.
• 1940s: World War II was a turning point in social
psychology studies. During the war, social psychologists

social examined issues such as propaganda, persuasion, and

obedience to authority.

psycholog
• 1950 - 1960: The cognitive psychology movement
influenced social psychology. How people think and
make decisions began to be addressed in a social
context.

y • 1970-1980: During this period, social psychology began

to focus on group dynamics as well as individual
behavior.
• Today:
• Today, social psychology examines cultural
differences, globalization, use of technology, and
the effects of digital environments.
• Cross-Cultural Studies: Theories based on Western
societies began to be tested in different cultures.
• Applied Social Psychology: The principles of social
psychology are applied in areas such as health,
education, business, and politics.
 • Social influence: Individuals changing their
Most studied thoughts, attitudes, or behaviors because of the
presence, behaviors, or expectations of others.

concepts in • Conformity: An individual conforming to group

norms.
social • E.g. When most of a group of friends wear black, a person
wears black in order to fit in with the group, even if it is not
their choice.
psychology • Obedience: Submitting to the demands of authority
figures.
• E.g. Nazis during Hitler's era

• Persuasion: When a person tries to change another

person's thoughts or behavior.
• E.g. Amazon reviews
 • Social identity: Social identity theory suggests that
individuals derive part of their identity from their group
memberships.
• Ingroup: The group to which an individual belongs.
• For example, a college student who finds his/her
own university "very successful" while disparaging
a rival university.
• Outgroup: The group to which an individual does not
Most studied belong.
• Intergroup Prejudice: Evaluations made in favor of

concepts in the ingroup and negative attitudes towards outgroup

members.

social • For example, football fans who praise their own

team while constantly criticizing the opposing
team.
psychology • Prejudice: A negative judgment or feeling against a person
or group that is acquired without sufficient information.
• For example, a person believing that a member of a
group they do not know is "lazy."
• Stereotype: Fixed and generalizing beliefs about members
of a particular group (for example, "all X group acts like
this").
• For example, generalizing statements such as "Women
can't drive" or "Old people are not tech-savvy."
• Discrimination: The behavioral manifestation of prejudice
and stereotypes.
• For example, An employer will not hire a person solely
 • Behavioral contagion: Individuals unconsciously imitating
Most studied the behavior of others. In particular, the contagion of
emotions is examined in this context.

concepts in • For example, a person applauding spontaneously when

others start applauding at a crowded concert.

social • For example, a stressed employee at a workplace

causing other employees around him to become
stressed as well.
psychology • Self-Concept: The individual's perception of himself.
• For example, a student saying "I'm good at math" and
building his identity on this success.
• Self-Esteem: The person's general evaluation of himself.
• For example, a person feeling worthless when the
number of likes on social media is low.
 • Bystander effect and helping behavior: It is the
tendency of individuals to help others. The bystander effect
is important in this area. The bystander effect is the
decrease in the likelihood of helping when there are others
around in an emergency.
Most studied • Example: Helping Behavior: A person who sees an old
woman struggling to carry her bags on the street helps
concepts in her.
• Example for Bystander Effect: People who see someone

social fall down on a crowded street do not intervene, saying,

“Someone else will help anyway.”

psychology • Leadership: The process of achieving certain goals by

influencing a group or community.
• Authoritarian leadership: The leader makes
decisions alone and applies the command-and-control
system. Example: Soldiers
• Democratic leadership: Decisions are made by
discussing with group members. Example: Student
groups
• Laissez-faire leadership: The leader provides
independent workspace for group members. Example:
Groups where the leader only provides guidance
 • Attitude: Attitude is an individual's positive or

Most studied negative evaluations of an object, event or person.

• For example, a person who advocates a healthy

concepts in life goes to the gym regularly and eats healthy.

• Components: Attitudes consist of cognitive
social (thought), emotional (feeling) and behavioral
(action) components.
psychology • Cognitive Dissonance: The feeling of discomfort
because of the inconsistency between attitudes and
behaviors.
• For example, a person continues to smoke
despite knowing that smoking is harmful. In this
case, the person may try to relax by saying, "It
reduces my stress."
 • Aggression: It is defined as behavior that intends to
harm an individual or an object. Social psychology
investigates how aggression is shaped by biological,
environmental, and social factors.

Most studied • Hostile aggression: The goal is to harm the other

party due to anger or resentment.

concepts in
• For example, arguing with someone in traffic and fighting in
anger.
• For example, a student in a school physically assaulting another

social person because he is angry.

• Instrumental aggression: Harming is a tool and is
psychology used to achieve a goal.
• For example, a thief harming someone during a robbery and
achieving his goal.
• For example, an athlete fouling an opposing player to win a game.

• Causes of aggression:
• Biological factors: Hormones (e.g. testosterone), nervous system,
and genetic factors can affect the tendency to be aggressive.
• Environmental factors: Environmental stressors such as heat,
crowds, and noise can increase aggression.
• Learned behaviors: Learning through observation
• Influence of the media: Violent movies, video games, or news can
trigger aggressive behavior in individuals.
• Frustration: Frustration can lead individuals to display anger and
aggression.
 1. Stanley Milgram's Obedience Experiment (1961)

Purpose of the Experiment: Stanley Milgram wanted to test how far

people would obey the orders of an authority figure. Inspired by the
defense of Nazi soldiers in World War II who said, "I was just following
orders," he tried to understand how far ordinary people would go.

Method of the Experiment

Popularized
Participants: 40 male volunteers of different professions and ages.

Process:
• Participants were told that this was a "learning and memory"

experiments •
experiment.

Participants played the role of "teacher conflict but and the other person
(conflict but actor) played the role of "student." The participants' job

in social
was to administer an electric shock to the student if he answered
incorrectly.
• The shocker started at 15 volts and went up to 450 volts. No shocks

psychology
were actually given, but the actor pretended to be in pain.
• The authority figure at the beginning of the experiment (the person
wearing a lab coat) was giving orders to the participants.

Results

65% of participants went as far as the lethal shock level of 450 volts, even
though they knew the student was in pain. Most of the participants stated
that they felt moral conflict but continued to obey the authority figure.

Comments and Contributions

This experiment provides a striking demonstration of the power of authority

and obedience. People tend to "pass the buck" on authority, forgetting their
individual responsibilities to it.

Criticism: Participants experienced significant stress. and the experiment

was considered ethically problematic.
 • 2. Solomon Asch’s Conformity Experiment (1951)
• Purpose of the Experiment
• Asch wanted to measure the degree to which individuals would
conform under group pressure.
• Method of the Experiment
• Participants: 50 male students.

Popularized
• Process:
• Participants are placed in a group. However, the other
members of the group are actors guided by Asch.

experiments
• The individuals in the group are given a simple task:
• A card with lines of different lengths is shown and they
are asked which one is the same length as the reference

in social
line.
• In the first few rounds, the actors give the correct
answer. Then, they create group pressure by knowingly

psychology
giving the wrong answer.
• Results
• 75% of the participants gave the wrong answer by conforming
to the group at least once.
• Most of the time, the participants conformed despite knowing
the wrong answer of the group.
• Comments and Contributions
• Normative social influence: Individuals conform to the
expectations of the group in order not to be ostracized or look
strange.
• Cognitive dissonance: The conflict between an individual’s own
opinion and the opinion of the group creates stress.
• The experiment revealed how social pressure influences an
 • 3. Philip Zimbardo’s Stanford Prison Experiment (1971)
• Purpose of the Experiment
• Zimbardo wanted to study how roles and social situations affect
people’s behavior.
• Method of the Experiment
• Participants: 24 college students were randomly assigned to the role

Popularized
of “guard” or “prisoner.”
• Procedure:
• A basement at Stanford University was transformed into a prison

experiments
environment.
• The guards wore uniforms, the prisoners had uniforms and ID
numbers.

in social
• The guards were given the authority to control the prisoners.
However, physical violence was forbidden.
• At the beginning of the experiment, the guards and prisoners
began to adopt their roles.

psychology •

•
Results

The guards soon began to exhibit authoritarian and sadistic behavior.

• The prisoners, on the other hand, became obedient, passive, and
helpless.
• As the psychological violence increased, the prisoners began to collapse
mentally.
• The experiment was stopped on the 6th day, before the planned 2
weeks.
• Comments and Contributions
• People may adopt the roles assigned to them and exhibit behaviors that
they would not normally exhibit.
• Deindividuation: Individuals losing their sense of identity and
responsibility within the group.
 • 4. Muzafer Sherif’s Robbers Cave Experiment (1954)
• Purpose of the Experiment
• To examine the causes and solutions of intergroup conflict.
• Method of the Experiment

Popularized
• Participants: 22 boys aged 11-12.
• Process:
• Children were divided into two groups: Eagles and

experiments Rattlers.
• In the first stage, groups were kept separate from each
other and in-group loyalty was strengthened.

in social • In the second stage, groups were confronted with

competitive games (e.g., football match, relay race).
• In the last stage, tasks with common goals were given to

psychology •
resolve intergroup conflict (e.g., repairing the water
supply).
Results
• Competition increased hostility between groups (verbal
attacks, burning flags, etc.).
• Conflict was resolved only when cooperation was made
towards common goals.
• Comments and Contributions
• Realistic Conflict Theory: Limited resources and competition
are at the core of conflict between groups.
• Social psychology has made important strides in
understanding group dynamics and how prejudices can be
reduced.
 • Leon Festinger and the Cognitive Dissonance
Experiment (1957)
• Purpose: To examine how people resolve the
conflict between their attitudes and their
behaviors.

Popularized • Experiment Method:

• Participants were asked to do a very boring task.

experiments • Some participants were then paid $1 and some

were paid $20 to tell the next person that the task

in social
was "very fun."
• Results:

psychology
• Participants who were given $1 internalized that
"the task was fun."
• Those who received $20 explained this behavior
with money.
• Interpretation:
• Attitude change with small rewards can create an
internal transformation. People change their
attitudes to resolve cognitive dissonance.
 • Darley and Latané’s Bystander Effect Experiment (1968)

• Inspired by the murder case of Kitty Genovese, Darley and Latané wanted
to investigate why people do not intervene in an emergency. Kitty
Genovese was killed by an assailant in New York in 1964, but despite
approximately 38 witnesses to the incident, no one intervened. The
researchers tried to understand the psychological reasons for such
situations.

• Method of the Experiment

• Participants: College students.

• Process:

Popularized
• Participants were called to the laboratory thinking they were
participating in a study.
• Each participant was in a room alone. However, they were made to
believe that they were communicating with other participants

experiments
(actually recorded voices) through headphones.
• During the experiment, “one participant” (actually a voice recording)
began to have an epileptic seizure. This person said that he had
difficulty breathing and needed help.

in social
• Participants were divided into 3 conditions: Condition in which they
thought they were alone (no one heard). Group of 2 (person having
a seizure and another participant). Group of 5 (person having a
seizure and 4 other participants).

psychology •

•
The researchers observed how long it took for the participants to try to help
and whether they went to help.

Results

• Participants who thought they were alone: ​85% left the room to help and
provided help quickly. Group of 2: Helping rate dropped to 62%. Group of 5:
Helping rate dropped to 31%. The time it took to help also increased with
group size. When there were more people, participants thought that
“someone else would help.”

• Interpretation of Results

• With these findings, Darley and Latané explained the concept of the
bystander effect. When there are more people around in an emergency:

• Diffusion of Responsibility: Individuals assume that others will take

responsibility. "Why should I help when there are so many people?"

• Social Influence: People observe the behavior of others and act accordingly.
If no one is intervening, they may assume the situation is not urgent.
 • Henri Tajfel’s Social Identity Experiment

• Purpose of the Experiment

• Tajfel wanted to examine whether individuals tend to view their own group as superior to
other groups, even in the most minor and unimportant circumstances. He specifically aimed
to understand whether conflict or realistic competition was necessary for group formation. He
investigated whether even simple group membership could lead to discrimination.

• Method of the Experiment

• Participants

• The experiment used 14-15 year old British male students. The participants were told that the
experiment was a decision-making exercise.

• Experimental Stages

Popularized 1. Random Group Formation:

1.
•
Participants were divided into two groups completely randomly.
However, the reason for the formation of the groups was explained through a “so-

experiments
called” reason:
• In the first experiment, the students were made to believe that they were
grouped according to their preference between two paintings by an artist
(the Klee group and the Kandinsky group).

in social
• This choice was completely meaningless and unimportant, the groups were
truly randomly formed.

• Task and Rewards:

• Participants were asked to rate other participants.

psychology •

•
Each participant would distribute points to people from their own group and the other group.

They were told that points would be awarded as cash prizes, but no one could give
themselves points.

• There were various combinations of prize distribution options:

• Fair distribution: Give equal points to both groups.

• Maximum group gain: Give as much profit as possible to their own group.

• Maximum difference: Give more profit to their own group than to the other group.

• Results

• Group favoritism: Participants tended to give more points to their own group members,
favoring their own group. They even put their own group ahead of the other group, even
though there was no competition or hostility between the two groups.

• Maximum difference preference: Participants preferred to reduce the points given to the
other group, even at the expense of their own group. For example: When given the
opportunity to give 10 points to their own group and 5 points to the other group, they avoided
giving 15 points to either group. Interpretation of Results Tajfel's experiments showed that
individuals can be prejudiced against other groups simply because of their group
10 minutes break