SC201

Mechanics of Materials

1. INTRODUCTION

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 1.1 Objectives of The Course
• The main objective is provide theoretical tools for
determining STRESSES and DEFORMATIONS caused
by LOADING a structural member.
• It is to be noted that a structure can be safe only if the
maximum stresses are LESS THAN the STRENGTH of
the Material used to fabricate the structure and that
EXCESSIVE DEFORMATIONS can adversely affect the
USE of the structure.
• Because of the above mentioned facts, the main
objectives of structural design is to ensure that the
stresses and deformations caused by loading a structure
are within acceptable limits.

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 1.2. VERIFICATION OF THE ADEQUACY OF A STRUCTURAL MEMBER
1.2.1 Loads Checklist

• The purpose of a loads checklist is to ensure

that all the loads that can act on a given
structure are considered in the design. There
are 3 groups of loads that can act on a structure
Group 1: Gravity or Vertical Loads:
- dead load
- Live load
- Rain and snow
- Weight of the soil

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1.2.1 The Loads checklist (cont.)
Group ii. Horizontal and dynamic Loads
-Wind
-Earthquake
-Vehicles and pedestrians including forces due to acceleration braking
centrifugal forces on curves etc.
-Machinery
- Earth and hydrostatic pressures
– Handling of Elements during construction and transport
– Bombs
– Noise and sound as a cause of vibration

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 1.2.1 The Loads checklist (cont.)
Group iii. Forces due to Resisted Movements

Statically determinate Systems are relatively insensitive to these. In case

of Statically indeterminate systems one must check the effects of
the following on the structure:
-Plastic deformation
examples i. Flow in concrete
ii. Sag in wood
iii. Foundation settlement
- Shrinkage (of concrete and masonry)
- Humidity changes (wood)
- Thermal expansion and contraction
- Fabrication errors
- Pre-stressing

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 1.2.2 Structural Checks
• As a result of the loads mentioned above
the possibility of failure always exists. One
has to consider carefully all probable
modes of failure. Therefore it is important
to check:

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 1.2.2 Structural Check (cont.)
i. Stability of the structure as a whole:
- Minimum of three link support for two
dimensions (lines of support must not intersect at
one point and they should point in at least Two different
directions i.e. they should not be parallel to each
other ) One moment restraint
can replace one link.
- Minimum of six link support for three
dimensions (lines of support must not all intersect
one straight line). One moment restraint can replace
one link up to a total of three.

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 1.2.2 Structural Check (cont.)

ii. Stability of each part

-Ensure.  F  0,  M 0

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 1.2.2 Structural Check (cont.)
iv. The STRENGTH of the material to
ensure that the applied tensile,
compressive and shear stresses do not
exceed the tensile, compressive and shear
strength of the material. Check stresses
caused by bending and torsion to ensure
that they can be resisted by the material.
Check Combined stresses.

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 1.2.2 Structural Check (cont.)
V. The stiffness of the members to ensure
the following:
a) requirements for use and appearance are
met e.g. Deflections should be within
acceptable limits.
b) The structure is elastically stable. i.e. No
buckling of any part of the structure.
c) The vibrations of the structure are within
acceptable limits
d) The structure is aerodynamically stable
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 1.2.2 Structural Check (cont.)
vi. Agents or Forces destructive of material:
Check the effects of the following on the
structural performance of the structure:
a. Fire
b. Chemical changes and Corrosion
c. Physical abrasion and erosion
d. Insect attack
e. Microscopic-plant and animal attack
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1.3. FACTOR OF SAFETY

Failure Load
Factor of safety is defined as :
Expected Load

Ensure that the factor of safety is acceptable

i.e. Ensure that there is an acceptable margin

between the working stresses and the

ultimate strength of the materials.
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 1.4 Typical Modes of Failure of some structural elements

Structure Typical Mode of Failure

Foundations & Uneven Settlement
Platforms
Columns Buckling
Walls Tipping over
Wall girders Bending stresses found by
(Beams whose M y
depth/span ratio is the conventional   I
greater than 1:2)
Are no longer sufficiently
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accurate
 1.4 Typical Modes of Failure of some structural elements
(cont.)

Structure Typical Mode of Failure

Timber Beams Splitting under Horizontal Shear

Steel and Buckling of Compression

Aluminum beams Flange or of web
Cantilever Excessive deflections
Masonry Arches Inward collapse at crown
& Barrel Vaults Out ward collapse at sides
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 1.4 Typical Modes of Failure of some structural elements
(cont.)

Structure Typical Mode of Failure

Masonry Domes Bursting out of lower sides

Timber, steel & Local or general lateral buckling

Aluminum arches
Concrete Arches Cracks in regions of bending
Trusses and Buckling of compression members
space frames

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 1.4 Typical Modes of Failure of some structural elements
(cont.)

Structure Typical Mode of Failure

Slabs, plates and Torsion, punching shear around

planar grid works columns & tension at corners
Suspension -Excessive deformations
systems and -Vibrations
flexible
-Aerodynamic Instability
membrane
Thin shells -Buckling
-Bending stresses near edges
-Movement of edge beams 16
 1.5. STRUCTURAL DESIGN PROCESS
• The design of a structure is a two
stage process. The stages are:

i. Selection of the type or Form of

structure
ii. Detailed design of the various parts of
the selected structure.

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1.5.1 SELECTION OF THE FORM
OF STRUCTURE
Selection of the type or form of structure entails:
a. Establishing the requirements e.g. acceptable
deflections, vibrations etc.
b. Development of various general solutions
c. Preparation of alternative well defined
proposals. The proposals should specify the
type of structure, Method of Construction and
technology of erecting the structure.
d. Assessment of the various proposals.
e. Selection of the optimum structure.
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1.5.2 Detailed Design of the Selected Structure.

• At this stage the details of the various parts of the

structure are worked out.
This is realized with the help of the following:
a. Diagrams, which show the internal forces and
deformation of the structure for different loading
conditions and material properties
b. Knowledge of the properties of the material particularly
the strength, Young’s modulus of elasticity and the
stress-strain relationship.
c. Established codes of practice e.g. BS8110 for design
of reinforced concrete structures, BS5950 for design of
steel structures etc.

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 1.6 Internal Forces in Structural Members
 The loads that are applied to a structure cause
internal forces in the individual elements of the
structure.
 For convenience in the analysis, the internal forces
in each element are spilt up into two main
components viz.:

1.Rotational forces consisting of bending

moments and torsional moments.
2.Translational forces consisting of axial
forces and shear forces
These Component forces and moments are
known as STRESS RESULTANTS 20
 1.6.1 Stress Resultants
• The number of stress resultants needed to
describe completely the forces acting at a cross
section of a structure depends on the type of
structure.
• For example to describe the forces acting at a
cross section of a member of a plane frame 3
stress resultants are needed viz.

1. Axial force,
2. One shear force and
3. One bending moment 21
 1.6.1 Stress Resultants (cont.)
• For a member of a space frame 6 stress
resultants will completely describe the forces
acting at a cross section these are:
1.Shear Force acting along the major axis
2.Shear Force acting along the minor axis.
3.Bending Moment acting about the major
axis
4.Bending Moment acting about minor axes.
5.Axial Force acting through the centroid
6.Torsional Moment acting about the shear
center 22
 1.6.2 Stresses and Deformation

• The stress resultants cause stresses in the structural

members and deformation of the member.
• knowledge of the stresses caused by the various
stress resultants is necessary to ensure that the
structure or any part of if does not collapse.
• Knowledge of the deformations caused by the
various stress resultants is necessary to ensure that
the structure meets the serviceability requirements.
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 1.6.2 Stresses and Deformation (cont.)

• For Example Stress caused by axial force is given by

 Force
cross sec tional Area
 The deformation caused by an axial force is given by
L  F L
A E

Where:
L=change in length of the member
F = Axial force
L = Length of the member
A = Cross sectional area
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E = Modulus of elasticity