Biochemical Engineering

BCH-255

Unit - I: Basics of Biology

Biophysics and the cell doctrine, structure of cells, types of cells, lipids,
sugars and polysaccharides, nucleotides to RNA and DNA, amino acids
to proteins, Hybrid biochemicals.
Cell is the smallest structure and fundamental unit of living organism. The process of life formation can
be divided into following steps:

1.Cell Formation:
Cell formation is the first stage of the life. The formation of life begins with the creation of cells, because
they are the fundamental units of life. And cell can be further categorized into prokaryotic and
eukaryotic. The prokaryotic means they are lacking of true nucleus. And in eukaryotic, they are having
the true nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.

2.Cell Division:
Cell has got an ability to divide or multiply. The process of cell division can be done in two methods. One
is mitosis and meiosis.
3.Multicellularity:
The cell will combine together to form a multicellular structure, and are further combined to perform a
specific operation called a specified cell, which performs a distinct function which gives rise to tissue,
organs and organ systems
4.Differentiation:
Cells within the multicellular organism undergo differentiation. That means they will undergo their own
special changes, acquiring special characters. They get their own structure based on the requirement,
based on the environmental conditions and functions.
5.Organism Formation:
Combination of specialized cells or the tissue or the organ results in the formation of complete
organisms. So, various types of organisms ranging from simple to complex emerge based on the
organism and coordination of their cells.

6.Reproduction:
Organisms will reproduce to pass their genetic information to the next generation.
Reproduction can occur through sexual and asexual reproduction.

7.Adaptation and Evolution:

Over the generation, living organisms are undergoing adaptation and evaluation. Based on the
requirement, new animal kingdom can also be evolved.

8.Ecological Interactions:
The organisms interact with the environment and each other in a complex ecosystem to
contribute to the balance of the life and sustainability of the ecosystem.
Structure and functions of a cell

• Cell Definition: “A cell is defined as the smallest, basic unit of life that is
responsible for all of life’s processes.”
• Cells are the structural, functional, and biological units of all living beings. A cell
can replicate itself independently. Hence, they are known as the building blocks
of life.
• Each cell contains a fluid called the cytoplasm, which is enclosed by a membrane.
Also present in the cytoplasm are several biomolecules like proteins, nucleic acids
and lipids. Moreover, cellular structures called cell organelles are suspended in
the cytoplasm.
Types of Cells
Cells are similar to factories with different labourers and departments that
work towards a common objective. Various types of cells perform different
functions. Based on cellular structure, there are two types of cells:
• Prokaryotes
• Eukaryotes
Prokaryotic Cells
• Prokaryotic cells have no nucleus. Instead, some prokaryotes such as bacteria have a
region within the cell where the genetic material is freely suspended. This region is
called the nucleoid.
• They all are single-celled microorganisms. Examples include archaea, bacteria, and
cyanobacteria.
• The cell size ranges from 0.1 to 0.5 µm in diameter.
• The hereditary material can either be DNA or RNA.
Fig 1.1 Structure of Prokaryotes cell
Eukaryotic Cells
• Eukaryotic cells are characterised by a true nucleus.
• The size of the cells ranges between 10–100 µm in diameter.
• This broad category involves plants, fungi, protozoans, and animals.
• The plasma membrane is responsible for monitoring the transport of nutrients
and electrolytes in and out of the cells. It is also responsible for cell to cell
communication.
• There are some contrasting features between plant and animal cells. For eg., the
plant cell contains chloroplast, central vacuoles, and other plastids, whereas the
animal cells do not.
Fig 1.2 Structure of Eukaryotes Cell
Characteristics of Cells
• Cells provide structure and support to the body of an organism.
• The cell interior is organised into different individual organelles surrounded by a separate
membrane.
• The nucleus (major organelle) holds genetic information necessary for reproduction and cell
growth.
• Every cell has one nucleus and membrane-bound organelles in the cytoplasm.
• Mitochondria, a double membrane-bound organelle is mainly responsible for the energy
transactions vital for the survival of the cell.
• Lysosomes digest unwanted materials in the cell.
• Endoplasmic reticulum plays a significant role in the internal organisation of the cell by synthesising
selective molecules and processing, directing and sorting them to their appropriate locations.
Cell Structure
The cell structure comprises individual components with specific functions essential to carry out life’s
processes. These components include- cell wall, cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, and cell
organelles.

•Cell Membrane
 The cell membrane supports and protects the cell. It controls the movement of substances in and out of the
cells. It separates the cell from the external environment. The cell membrane is present in all the cells.
 The cell membrane is the outer covering of a cell within which all other organelles, such as the cytoplasm
and nucleus, are enclosed. It is also referred to as the plasma membrane.
 By structure, it is a porous membrane (with pores) which permits the movement of selective substances in
and out of the cell. Besides this, the cell membrane also protects the cellular component from damage and
leakage.
 It forms the wall-like structure between two cells as well as between the cell and its surroundings.
 Plants are immobile, so their cell structures are well-adapted to protect them from external factors. The
cell wall helps to reinforce this function.
Cell Wall
 The cell wall is the most prominent part of the plant’s cell structure. It is made up of cellulose,
hemicellulose and pectin.

 The cell wall is present exclusively in plant cells. It protects the plasma membrane and other cellular
components. The cell wall is also the outermost layer of plant cells.

 It is a rigid and stiff structure surrounding the cell membrane.

 It provides shape and support to the cells and protects them from mechanical shocks and injuries.

Cytoplasm
The cytoplasm is a thick, clear, jelly-like substance present inside the cell membrane.

Most of the chemical reactions within a cell take place in this cytoplasm.

The cell organelles such as endoplasmic reticulum, vacuoles, mitochondria, ribosomes, are
suspended in this cytoplasm.
Nucleus
 The nucleus contains the hereditary material of the cell, the DNA.

 It sends signals to the cells to grow, mature, divide and die.

 The nucleus is surrounded by the nuclear envelope that separates the DNA from the rest of the cell.

 The nucleus protects the DNA and is an integral component of a plant’s cell structure.

Cell Organelles
Cells are composed of various cell organelles that perform certain specific functions to carry out
life’s processes.
Cell Organelles and their Functions
Nucleolus
The nucleolus is the site of ribosome synthesis. Also, it is involved in controlling cellular activities and cellular reproduction.

Nuclear membrane
The nuclear membrane protects the nucleus by forming a boundary between the nucleus and other cell organelles.

Chromosomes
Chromosomes play a crucial role in determining the sex of an individual. Each human cells contain 23 pairs of chromosomes.

Endoplasmic reticulum
The endoplasmic reticulum is involved in the transportation of substances throughout the cell. It plays a primary role in the
metabolism of carbohydrates, synthesis of lipids, steroids and proteins.

Golgi Bodies
Golgi bodies are called the cell’s post office as it is involved in the transportation of materials within the cell.
Ribosome
Ribosomes are the protein synthesisers of the cell.

Mitochondria
The mitochondrion is called “the powerhouse of the cell.” It is called so because it produces ATP – the cell’s energy
currency.
Lysosomes

Lysosomes protect the cell by engulfing the foreign bodies entering the cell and help in cell renewal. Therefore, they are
known as the cell’s suicide bags.

Chloroplast

Chloroplasts are the primary organelles for photosynthesis. It contains the pigment called chlorophyll.

Vacuoles
Vacuoles store food, water, and other waste materials in the cell.
Functions of Cell
A cell performs major functions essential for the growth and development of an organism.
Important functions of cell are as follows:

Provides Support and Structure

All the organisms are made up of cells. They form the structural basis of all the organisms.
The cell wall and the cell membrane are the main components that function to provide
support and structure to the organism.
For eg., the skin is made up of a large number of cells. Xylem present in the vascular plants is
made of cells that provide structural support to the plants.

Facilitate Growth Mitosis

In the process of mitosis, the parent cell divides into the daughter cells. Thus, the cells multiply
and facilitate the growth in an organism.
Allows Transport of Substances
Various nutrients are imported by the cells to carry out various chemical processes going on inside the
cells. The waste produced by the chemical processes is eliminated from the cells by active and passive
transport. Small molecules such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, and ethanol diffuse across the cell
membrane along the concentration gradient. This is known as passive transport. The larger molecules
diffuse across the cell membrane through active transport where the cells require a lot of energy to
transport the substances.

Energy Production
Cells require energy to carry out various chemical processes. This energy is produced by the cells
through a process called photosynthesis in plants and respiration in animals.

Cell Reproduction
A cell reproduction through the processes called mitosis and meiosis. Mitosis is termed as the asexual
reproduction where the parent cell divides to form daughter cells. Meiosis causes the daughter cells to
be genetically different from the parent cells.
Organelle Function
A double layer that supports and protects the cell. Allows
Cell Membrane
materials in and out.
Contains digestive enzymes that destroy damaged organelles
Lysosome
and invaders.
Cytoplasm Jelly-like fluid that surrounds and protects the organelles.
Nucleus The control center of the cell. Contains the DNA
Nuclear Membrane Surrounds the nucleus.
Nucleolus A round structure in the nucleus that makes ribosomes.
Vacuole Stores food and water.
Golgi Body Processes and packages materials for the cell.
The “Powerhouse”. Breaks down food to produce energy in
Mitochondria
the form of ATP.
Builds and transports substances through the cell. Has
Rough E.R.
ribosomes on it.
Builds and transports substances through the cell. Does not
Smooth E.R.
have ribosomes.
Ribosome Helps make protein for the cell.
Organelle Function
Cell Membrane A double layer that supports and protects the cell. Allows materials in and out.
Lysosome Contains digestive enzymes that destroy damaged organelles and invaders.
Cytoplasm Jelly-like fluid that surrounds and protects the organelles.
Nucleus The control center of the cell. Contains the DNA
Nuclear Membrane Surrounds the nucleus.
Nucleolus A round structure in the nucleus that makes ribosomes.
Vacuole Stores food and water.
Golgi Body Processes and packages materials for the cell.
Mitochondria The “Powerhouse”. Breaks down food to produce energy in the form of ATP.
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum Builds and transports substances through the cell. Has ribosomes on it.
Smooth E.R. Builds and transports substances through the cell. Does not have ribosomes.
Ribosome Helps make protein for the cell.
Cell Wall Gives shape and protection to plant cells.
Changes sunlight into sugar for plant cells. Contains a green pigment called
Chloroplast
chlorophyll.
What is the difference between plant and animal cells?