UNIT I

BASIC CIRCUITS ANALYSIS

 EE6201 - CIRCUIT THEORY
OBJECTIVES:
• To introduce electric circuits and its analysis
• To impart knowledge on solving circuits using network
theorems
• To introduce the phenomenon of resonance in
coupled circuits.
• To educate on obtaining the transient response of
circuits.
• To Phasor diagrams and analysis of three phase
circuits
MZCET/EEE/II Sem/EE6201 2
 All you need to be an inventor is a good
imagination and a pile of junk.
-Thomas Edison

Required: Scientific Calculator

(fx-991MS)

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 Electricity
 7 percent of power generated at large central
stations is lost during transmission to the user
over high-voltage lines!
 1 lightening bolt has
enough power to service
200 000 homes!!

20 mA of current running through our body

can stop our heart!!

MZCET/EEE/II Sem/EE6201 4
 UNIT I
BASIC CIRCUITS ANALYSIS

• 1.1 Ohm’s Law

• 1.2 Kirchoffs laws
• 1.3Resistors in series and parallel circuits
• 1.4 Mesh current and node voltage method
of analysis for D.C and A.C. circuits
• 1.4 Phasor Diagram
• 1.5 Power, Power Factor and Energy.

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 What is electricity?
• One might define electricity as the separation of positive and
negative electric charge.

• When the charges are separated and stationary we call this

static electricity. The charging of a capacitor is an example.

• The separation of charge between clouds and the earth before

a lighting discharge is a static electricity.

• When the charges are in motion (changing with time relative

to one another) we have variable electricity.

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 Charge
The unit of charge is the coulomb (C)
Where one coulomb is one ampere second. (1 coulomb =
6.24×1018 electrons).

The coulomb is defined as the quantity of electricity which

flows past a given point in an electric circuit when a current
of one ampere is maintained for one second.

Charge, in coulombs Q=It

where I is the current in amperes and t is the time in
seconds.

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 Force
The unit of force is the newton (N) where one newton is one
kilogram metre per second squared.

The newton is defined as the force which, when applied to a

mass of one kilogram, gives it an acceleration of one metre per
second squared.

Thus, force in newtons F = m a

where
m is the mass in kilograms and
a is the acceleration in metres per second squared.
Gravitational force, or weight, is mg, where g=9.81m/s2.

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 Work
The unit of work or energy is the joule (J) where one joule is
one newton metre.

The joule is defined as the work done or energy transferred

when a force of one newton is exerted through a distance of
one metre in the direction of the force.

Thus work done on a body, in joules W= F s

where F is the force in newtons and s is the distance in

metres moved by the body in the direction of the force.

Energy is the capacity for doing work.

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 Electrical potential and e.m.f.
The unit of electric potential is the volt (V) where one volt is one joule per
coulomb.
Voltage is a measure of the work required to move a charge from
one point to another in a electric field. Thus the unit "volt" is
defined as a Joules (J) per Coulomb (C).

A change in electric potential between two points in an electric circuit is called

a potential difference. The electromotive force (e.m.f.) provided by a source of
energy such as a battery or a generator is measured in volts.

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How you should be
thinking about
voltage:

Voltage: a force that

pushes the current
(charge particles)
through the circuit (in
this picture it would be
equivalent to gravity)
Potential Difference (V)
 Potential difference is the work done
per unit charge to transfer a charge
from one point to another (also Voltage)
i.e V=W
Q

 Unit Volt V or J C-1

 Volt is the p.d. between two points if
one joule of work is done bringing one
coulomb from one point to the other
 Potential at a point is the p.d. between
a point and the Earth, where the Earth is
at zero potential

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 Current
The unit of current is ampere(A); an ampere is 1 coulomb per
second.
Current is the time rate of flow of electric
charge past a given point .
dq
i (t ) 
dt
One Amp of current is one Coulomb per second (6.24 x1018
electrons/second).

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How you should be
thinking about
current:

Current: the actual

“substance” that is
flowing through the
wires of the circuit
(electrons!)
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Electric Current (I)
 This is the flow of electric
charge
 {In a metal conductor it is the
flow of electrons}
 Size of current in a conductor is
the amount of charge passing
any point of that conductor per
second
 Q = It
 Unit Amp A or C s-1

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 Electrons flow from – to +
 Conventional current flows from + to – i.e. flow of
positive charge
DC direct current flows in one direction in a
closed circuit, it is caused by a power supply
AC alternating current is when the current
constantly reverses direction e.g. mains current
alternates 100 times per second
e-

+_
e-

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 Power
The unit of power is the watt (W) where one watt is one joule per second.

Power is defined as the rate of doing work or transferring energy.

dw
Thus, power in watts, p
dt
We can write equation as follows:
dw dq
p  vi
dq dt

Where W is the work done or energy transferred in joules

and t is the time in seconds. Thus energy, in joules, W=Pt

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 Energy
Energy is the capacity to perform work. Energy and power are related to each
other by the following equation:

Electrical energy = Power × time

= VIt Joules

Although the unit of energy is the joule, when dealing with large amounts of energy,
the unit used is the kilowatt hour (kWh)

where
1kWh = 1000 watt hour
= 1000×3600 watt seconds or joules
= 3600000J

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 Q. A source e.m.f. of 5V supplies a current of 3A for 10
minutes. How much energy is provided in this time?
Energy=power × time
Power=voltage × current.
Hence
Energy=Vit =5×3×(10×60)=9000Ws or J = 9kJ

Q: An electric heater consumes 1.8MJ when connected to a 250V supply for

30 minutes. Find the power rating of the heater and the current taken
from the supply.
Energy=power ×time, hence

i.e. Power rating of heater=1kW

Hence the current taken from the

supply is 4 A.
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How you should be
thinking about
resistance:

Resistance: friction that

impedes flow of current
through the circuit (rocks
in the river)

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 Resistance is the physical property of an element or device that impedes
the flow of current. it is represented by the symbol R.

where A is the cross-sectional area, ρ the resistivity, and l the length of the wire.
The practical unit of resistance is ohm and represented by the symbol Ω.

An element is said to have a resistance of 1 ohm, if it permits 1A of current to

flow through it when 1V is impressed across its terminals.

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Inductors
Whenever a time-changing current is passed through a coil or wire, the voltage
across it is proportional to the rate of change of current through the coil. This
proportional relationship may be expressed by the equation V = L

Where is the constant of proportionality known as inductance and is measured in

Henrys (H)
The changing flux creates an induced voltage in each turn
equal to the derivative of the flux , so the total voltage
across turns is V = N -------------(a)

Since the total flux is proportional to current in the coil,

we have NФ = Li ------------- (b)
Where is the constant of proportionality. Substituting equation
(b) into equation( a), we get V = L

The power in an inductor is P = V I = L (

The energy stored in an inductor is W =

W= L (. dt =
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Capacitance is defined as the ratio of the charge stored to the voltage difference
between the two conducting plates or wires, C= Farad

The current through the capacitor is given by i=

Where is the constant of proportionality known as capacitance and is measured in

Farad(F)
The energy stored in a capacitor is W=

W= W=

W= W = Joules

Capacitor uses
Allow a.c. to flow but block d.c.
Tune in radio stations (variable capacitor)
Smooth out variations in d.c.
Camera flash
Filtering: allow certain frequencies of an alternating
signal to pass but block others
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 Energy Sources
An active two-terminal element that supplies energy to a circuit is a source of energy.
Ideal voltage source is a circuit element that maintains a prescribed voltage across the
terminals regardless of the current flowing in those terminals.
Ideal current source is a circuit element that maintains a prescribed current through its
terminals regardless of the voltage across those terminals.

Ideal voltage and current sources can be further described as either independent
sources or dependent sources.

An independent source establishes a voltage or current

in a circuit without relying on voltages or currents
elsewhere in the circuit. The value of the voltage or
current supplied is specified by the value of the
independent source alone.

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Dependent source establishes a voltage or current whose value depends on
the value of the voltage or current elsewhere in the circuit.
It is indicated by diamond shape. It is also called as controlled sources.

Types of Dependent of sources.

1. Voltage controlled voltage source (VCVS)
2. Current controlled voltage source (CCVS)
3. Voltage controlled current source (VCCS)
4. Current controlled current source (CCCS)

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 Classification of Circuit Elements
Electrical Network:
A combination of various electric elements (Resistor, Inductor, Capacitor,
Voltage source, Current source) connected in any manner what so ever is called
an electrical network.

Circuit
Elements

Active Linear Unilateral Lumped

Passive Non linear Bilateral Distributed

Voltage /
R Diode Lamp
Current Source

Transmission
R,L,C L,C, Diode R,L,C
Line
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Classification of Circuit Elements
 Active & Passive Elements
 Active Elements (Source): Voltage & Current Sources
 Passive Elements (Sink): Resistor, Inductor & Capacitor
 Linear & Non-linear Elements
 Linear (Satisfies Superposition): Resistor, Inductor, Capacitor
 Nonlinear: LDR (Light Dependent Resistor), Thermistor
 Unilateral & Bilateral Elements
 Unilateral (Current Flow in one direction): Diode, Transistor
 Bilateral: Resistor, Inductor, Capacitor*
 Lumped & Distributed

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 Active Element: The elements that supply Passive Element: The element which
energy to the circuit is called active element. receives energy (or absorbs energy) and
Examples of active elements include voltage and then either converts it into heat (R) or
current sources, generators, and electronic stored it in an electric (C) or magnetic
devices that require power supplies. (L ) field is called passive element.

Bilateral Element: Conduction of current in both Unilateral Element: Conduction of current in

directions in an element (example: Resistance; one direction is termed as unilateral (example:
Inductance; Capacitance) with same magnitude Diode, Transistor) element.
is termed as bilateral element.

Linear circuit is one whose parameters do not Non-Linear Circuit: Non-linear system is that
change with voltage or current. More specifically, a whose parameters change with voltage or
linear system is one that satisfies (i) homogeneity current. More specifically, non-linear circuit
property (ii) additive property does not obey the homogeneity and
additive properties.

Lumped network: A network consisting of Distributed network: A network consisting of

physically separable elements such as elements that are not separable for analytical
resistor, capacitor and inductor is known as purpose is known as distributed network.
lumped network. Ex. RLC network Ex. Transmission lines(R, L and C is
distributed along its length)
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 Which is the correct way?

Open Circuit Short Circuit

Closed Circuit

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 Electric Circuit
An interconnection of simple electrical devices with at
least one closed path in which current may flow.

Node: A node of a network is an equi-potential

surface at which three or more circuit elements are
joined.

Junction: A junction is that point in a network, where two or more circuit elements
are joined.
Branch: A branch is that part of a network which lies between two junction points.
Loop: A loop is any closed path of a network. ABDA,BCDB and ABCDA are the loops.

Mesh: A mesh is the most elementary form of a loop and cannot be further divided
into other loops. ABDA and BCDB are the examples of mesh. Once ABDA and BCDB
are taken as meshes, the loop ABCDA does not qualify as a mesh, because it contains
loops ABDA and BCDB. MZCET/EEE/II Sem/EE6201 30
 1.1 Ohm’s Law
Ohm’s law states that the current I flowing in a circuit is directly proportional to the
applied voltage V and inversely proportional to the resistance R, provided the
temperature remains constant.
I= V = IR R=

Disadvantages of Ohm’s Law.

* It does not apply to all non metallic conductors
* It also does not apply to non linear devices such as zener diode, vacuum tubes etc.
* It is true for metal conductors at constant temperature. If the temperature changes
the law is not applicable.

Q: The current flowing through a resistor is 0.8 A when a p.d. of 20V is applied.
Determine the value of the resistance.
From Ohm’s law,
resistance R = = R = 25Ω

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 1.2 Kirchoff’s Laws
KCL & KVL
The first law is Kirchoff’s current law(KCL), which states that the
algebraic sum of currents at any node is zero.

ib + i d - ia - i d = 0

Otherwise the sum of the currents entering towards the node is

equal to sum of currents leaving the node.
ib + i d = i a + i d

KCL otherwise termed as Point Law.

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 Exercise:1
In the figure 1 shown, find the value of I.

2+5+(-3)= I+(-2)

I = 6A

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 KVL (Kirchoff’S Voltage Law)
It states that in a closed circuit, the
algebraic sum of all source voltages
must be equal to the algebraic sum of
all the voltage drops.
Voltage rise is encountered when
current flows in an element (voltage
source) from lower potential terminal
(or negative terminal of voltage source)
toward the higher potential terminal (or
positive terminal of voltage source).

Voltage drop is encountered when current flows in an element (resistance or load)

from the higher-potential terminal toward the lower potential terminal.

V1 – (IR1 ) –( IR2 ) – V2 – (IR3 ) = 0

KVL otherwise termed as Mesh Law.

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Exercise:2
In the figure shown, find the value of I, Voltage across each resistance.

60 -V1 –V2 =0
60 -6I-12I =0

18I = 60 V1 = 6I V2 = 12I
I = 60/18 = 6 x 3.33 = 12 x 3.33
=3.33A =19.98 V = 39.96 V

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Multiple sources into single source

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 Source transformation
Source transformation is a procedure which transforms one source into another
while retaining the terminal characteristics of the original source.

A voltage source in series with a resistor (Rs) can be replaced with a current source of
value i = V/Rs in parallel with the resistor (Rs or Rp).
OR

A current source in parallel with a resistor (Rp) can be replaced with a voltage
source of value V=iRp in series with the resistor (Rs or Rp).
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Convert the Voltage source into Current source

I== A

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Convert the Current source into voltage source

V= IR = 5 x 2 = 10V

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 1.3 Resistors in series & Parallel

• Two elements are in series if they exclusively share a single node

• Two elements are in parallel if they are connected to the same two
nodes
• To determine the current or voltage in a circuit that contains multiple
resistors, the total resistance must first be calculated.

• Resistors can be combined in series or parallel.

Resistors in Series

• When connected in series, the total resistance (Rt) is equal to:

Rt = R1 + R2 + R3 +… Rn
• The total resistance is always larger than any individual resistance.

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Problem
Calculate the total current through the 15 Ω 10 Ω 6Ω
circuit.

Rt = 15 Ω +10 Ω + 6 Ω

Rt = 31 Ω

I = V/Rt
= 10 V/ 31 Ω = 0.32 A
10 V

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 Resistors in Series
• Since charge has only one path to flow through, the current that
passes through each resistor is the same.
• The sum of all potential differences equals the potential difference
across the battery.

5V 3V 2V

10 V
> R value = > V Value

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 Resistors in Parallel

• When connected in parallel, the total resistance (Rt) is equal to:

Due to this reciprocal relationship, the total resistance is always smaller than any
individual resistance.

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Problem
Calculate the total resistance through this segment of a
circuit. 12 Ω

1/Rt = 1/12 Ω +1/4 Ω + 1/6 Ω

4Ω
= 1/12 Ω + 3/12 Ω + 2/12 Ω

1/Rt = 6/12 Ω = ½ Ω
6Ω
Rt = 2 Ω

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 Resistors in Parallel

• Since there is more than one possible path, the current divides itself according to the
resistance of each path.

smallest resistor = more current passes

largest resistor = least current passes
The voltage across each resistor in a parallel combination is the
same.
10 V

10 V

10 V
10 V

10 V
10 V

10 V
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Calculate the total resistance in the circuit
below

3Ω 2Ω Rtot = 3 Ω + 2 Ω = 5 Ω

6Ω 4Ω Rtot = 6 Ω + 4 Ω = 10 Ω

1/Rtot = 2/10 Ω+ 1/10 Ω = 3/10 Ω

+ -
Rtot = 3 1/3
Ω
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 Comparision Between Series and Parallel
Series Parallel
The total effective resistance is the sum of The reciprocal of the total effective
the individual resistance ie resistance is the sum of the reciprocals of
Reff=R1+R2+……R n individual resistance
1/Reff= 1/R1+1/R2+….1/R n
Only one path for the current flow More than one path for the current to flow
The current flowing through all the The current flowing through each
resistances will be the same and equal to resistance is different
the total current
The voltage is divided across each The voltage across each resistance is
resistance according to the value of same which will be equal to the input
resistance. voltage.
Powers are additive Powers are additive
Same control for all Loads Individual control for each load

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Equivalent Resistance: Resistors in combination.

By combination we mean we have a mix of series and

Parallel. This is illustrated below.

R1 R3

R eq R2 R4 R5

To find the equivalent resistance we usually start at the output of the circuit
and work back to the input.

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Equivalent Resistance: Resistors in combination.

R1 R3

R4 R5
Req R2 Rx Rx 
R4  R5

R1

R eq R2 Ry R y  R x  R3

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Equivalent Resistance: Resistors in combination.

R1

R2 RY
R eq RZ RZ 
R2  RY

R eq
Req  RZ  R1

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 Equivalent Resistance: Resistors in combination.

It is easier to work the previous problem using numbers than to

work out a general expression. This is illustrated below.

Example : Find Req in the circuit below. .

10  8

R eq 10  3 6

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 Equivalent Resistance: Resistors in combination.

Q. 1:
We start at the right hand side of the circuit and work to the left
.

10  8 10 

Req 10  2 R eq 5

Ans: Req 15 

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 Equivalent Resistance: Resistors in combination.

Q.2: Given the circuit shown below. Find Req.

6 

c 12  10 
b a

4
R eq
d

9
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 c 12 
b

4 6 10 
R eq 10  resistor
shorted out

d, a

Req 4 6 12 

Req Req = 2 Ω
4 4

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Find the equivalent resistance between the terminals A & B.

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 Wye (Star) to Delta Transformation:
You are given the following circuit. Determine Req.

I 9

10  5
R eq 10 
+
V _

8 4

We cannot use resistors in parallel. We cannot use resistors in series.

If we knew V and I we could solve Req = V/I

There is another way to solve the problem without solving

for I (given, assume, V) and calculating Req for V/I. (Unit-II)

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Find Equivalent Resistance in the following
networks.

3 4

11

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Find the value of R in the circuit.

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 AC vs DC
• Electricity is produced by generators and distributed
throughout country
• Alternating current (a.c.) is easier and cheaper to generate
than direct current (d.c.)
• a.c. is easily distributed as ac voltages can be stepped up or
down using transformers
• How do we get dc?

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AC Generator

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Waveforms
• Unidirectional
waveforms

• Alternating waveforms

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Waveforms……..

• T = Period = periodic time = The time taken for an alternating

quantity to complete one cycle
• The number of cycles completed in one second is called the
frequency f

• Standard frequency = 50Hz ie 50 cycles a second

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 AC values for a waveform
• Instantaneous value:
The magnitude of a waveform at any instant of time; lowercase
letters (e, v, i)
• Peak amplitude:
The maximum value of the waveform as measured from its average
(or mean) value (0 V for a sinusoidal AC voltage), denoted by the
uppercase letters Vm or Vp and Em or Ep
• Peak-to-peak value:
The full voltage between positive and negative peaks of the
waveform; The sum of the magnitudes of the positive and negative
peaks, denoted by Ep-p or Vp-p
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• Average or mean value:
The average or mean value of a symmetrical alternating quantity,
(such as a sine wave), is the average value measured over a half
cycle, (since over a complete cycle the average value is zero).

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• RMS value:
The effective value of an alternating current is that current which
will produce the same heating effect as an equivalent direct
current. The effective value is called the root mean square
(r.m.s.) value and whenever an alternating quantity is given, it is
assumed to be the r.m.s. value.

Vrms=

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ac values for a sinewave

Vrms 0.707V p I rms 0.707 I p

V p 1.414Vrms I p 1.414 I rms
V pp 2.828Vrms I pp 2.828 I rms

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Equation of a sinusoidal waveform

Given the general sinusoidal voltage V= Vm Sin(ωt±Ф), then

i. Amplitude or maximum value = Vm
ii. Peak to peak value = 2 Vm
iii. Angular velocity = ω rad/s
iv. Periodic Time, T = 2π / ω seconds
v. Frequency, f = ω /2π Hz (since ω =2πf)
vi. Ф = angle of lag or lead (compared with V = Vm Sinωt)

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 Angular Measurement
• Angular measurements can be made in degrees (o) or radians.
There are 360o or 2p radians in one complete revolution.
1.0
0.8
0.6
R
0.4
0.2
0   
R 0 3 5 3 7 2
-0.2 4 2 4 4 2 4

-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1.0

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 Angular Measurement
• To find the number of radians, given the number of degrees.

2 rad
rad  degrees
360

• To find the number of degrees, given the radians:

360
deg  rad
2 rad

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 Sine wave

 radians
180o
2 radians

360o

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 Sine wave
Peak-Peak = 3.0
Sine wave
1.5x=0.955
2 ½ cycle average =
0
1.5 Average =
1.06
1
RMS =
1.06/0.955
0.5
Form Factor = = 1.11
Volts (V)

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

-0.5

-1

-1.5

-2
time (s)

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sinusoidal waveform – phase shifts
• If the waveform is shifted to the right or left of 0°,
the expression becomes: A sin(t  )
–  is the angle (in radians) that the waveform has been
shifted.
A sin(t   ) A sin(t   )
Shift left Shift right

MZCET/EEE/II Sem/EE6201 75
 1.4 Mesh Analysis:
Steps to Determine Mesh Currents:
1. Assign mesh currents i1, i2, .., in to the n meshes.
2. Apply KVL to each of the n meshes. Use Ohm’s
law to express the voltages in terms of the mesh
currents.
3. Solve the resulting n simultaneous equations to
get the mesh currents.

MZCET/EEE/II Sem/EE6201 76
 Mesh Analysis:
In formulating mesh analysis we assign a mesh current to
each mesh.
R1 R2
_ + _
+ V1 V2
+
+ +
VA VL1 Rx VB
_ I1 _
I2 _

Around mesh 1:

V1 VL1 V A
where V1  I1 R1 ; VL1  I1  I 2 RX
so, ( R1  RX ) I1  RX I 2 V A Eq 7.1
MZCET/EEE/II Sem/EE6201 77
 R1 R2
_ + _
+ V1 V2
+
+ +
VA VL1 Rx VB
_ I1 _
I2 _

Around mesh 2 we have

Eq 2
VL1  V2 VB
with; VL1  ( I 2  I1 ) R X ; V2 I 2 R2 Eq 3

Substituting Eq 3 in Eq 2 gives,
R X I1  ( R X  R2 ) I 2 VB
or  R X I1  ( R X  R2 ) I 2  VB Eq4

MZCET/EEE/II Sem/EE6201 78
 ( R1  RX ) I1  RX I 2 V A Eq 5

 RX I1  ( RX  R2 ) I 2  VB Eq 6

We can easily solve these equations for I1 and I2.

 ( R1  RX )  R X   I1   V A 
  R     
 X ( R X  R I
2  2 
 BV
or
1
 I1   ( R1  RX )  RX   V A 
 I    R ( R  R   V 
 2  X X 2  B

MZCET/EEE/II Sem/EE6201 79
Mesh Analysis: Example 1.
Write the mesh equations and solve for the currents I 1, and I2.

4 2

7
6
10V + I1 I2
_
2 V +_ _
20V
+

Mesh 1 4I1 + 6(I1 – I2) = 10 - 2 Eq (1)

Mesh 2 6(I2 – I1) + 2I2 + 7I2 = 2 + 20 Eq (2)

10I1 – 6I2 = 8 I1 = 2.2105 A

-6I1 + 15I2 = 22 I2 = 2.3509 A
MZCET/EEE/II Sem/EE6201 80
Mesh Analysis: Example 2
Solve for the mesh currents in the circuit below.
12V
9
_
_ +

+
I3 8V
10  11 
+ _

6 4
3
I1 _ I2
20V + 10V
__ +

Mesh 1: 6I1 + 10(I1 – I3) + 4(I1 – I2) = 20 + 10

Mesh 2: 4(I2 – I1) + 11(I2 – I3) + 3I2 = - 10 - 8
Mesh 3: 9I3 + 11(I3 – I2) + 10(I3 – I1) = 12 + 8
MZCET/EEE/II Sem/EE6201 81
 Standard Equation form In matrix form:
20I1 – 4I2 – 10I3 = 30
 20  4  10  I 1   30 
-4I1 + 18I2 – 11I3 = -18   4 18  11  I     18
   2  
-10I1 – 11I2 + 30I3 = 20
  10  11 30   I 3   20 

 R11 R12 R13   I1    emfs (1) 

R R22 R23   I 2     emfs ( 2) 
 21
 R31 R32 R33   I 3    emfs ( 3) 

R11 =  of resistance around mesh 1, common to mesh 1 current I1.

R22 =  of resistance around mesh 2, common to mesh 2 current I2.

R33 =  of resistance around mesh 3, common to mesh 3 current I3.

MZCET/EEE/II Sem/EE6201 82
 R12 = R21 = - resistance common between mesh 1 and 2
when I1 and I2 are opposite through R1,R2.
R13 = R31 = - resistance common between mesh 1 and 3
when I1 and I3 are opposite through R1,R3.
R23 = R32 = - resistance common between mesh 2 and 3
when I2 and I3 are opposite through R2,R3.

 emfs(1) = sum of emf around mesh 1 in the direction of I1.

 emfs ( 2) = sum of emf around mesh 2 in the direction of I2.

 emfs ( 3) = sum of emf around mesh 3 in the direction of I3.
MZCET/EEE/II Sem/EE6201 83
For AC Circuit

MZCET/EEE/II Sem/EE6201 84
Mesh Analysis: Example 3 - Direct method.
Use the direct method to write the mesh equations for the following.

20  30  12 

_ 8
10 
+ I1 I2 + 15V I3
20V _
+ _
_ 10V 10  + 30V

 30  10 0   I1   10 
  10 50  10  I    25
   2  
 0  10 30   I 3   15 

MZCET/EEE/II Sem/EE6201 85
 Ex. 4: Find the power dissipated in the 80Ω resistor using mesh analysis.

Step 1: assign the mesh currents

KVL clockwise to mesh 1 :

KVL clockwise to mesh 2 :
KVL clockwise to mesh 3 :

Putting the above mesh equations in

matrix form, we get

MZCET/EEE/II Sem/EE6201 86
 Mesh Analysis: Ex.5 (With current sources in the circuit)
20V
2
_ + When a current source is present, it
will be directly related to
10  I3 one or more of the mesh current. In
20 
this case

10V +
_ I1 5 I2 I2 = -4A. ----------(a)
4A

15 

Equation for mesh 1: 10I1 + (I1-I2)5 = 10 15I1 – 5I2 = 10 -------(b)

Equations for mesh 3: 2I3 + (I3-I2)20 = 20 - 20I2 + 22I3 = 20 -----------(c)

Substituting the value of I2 in Equations b & c we get the value of I1 & I3

I1 = -0.667 A I3 = - 2.73 A
MZCET/EEE/II Sem/EE6201 87
Mesh Analysis: Ex.6 (With current sources but supermesh)
Find the mesh currents i1 , i2 & i3 .

MZCET/EEE/II Sem/EE6201 88
 Constraint equation is i1 –i2 =1

Supermesh : 2i1 + 3i2 -3i3 =2

Mesh 3 : 2i1 +i2 -4i3 =0
Current source : i1 – i 2 = 1
Solving the above simultaneous equations, we find that
i1 = 1.55A, i2 = 0.55A, i3 = 0.91A

MZCET/EEE/II Sem/EE6201 89
 Mesh Analysis: Ex.7 (With dependent source)
Use the mesh-current method to find the power delivered by the dependent
voltage source

Independent Voltage
Source
i1

i3

i2 Dependent Voltage Source

(Depends upon the current
Flowing through 50Ω)

MZCET/EEE/II Sem/EE6201 90
MZCET/EEE/II Sem/EE6201 91
Use the mesh-current method to find the power delivered by the dependent
Current source

MZCET/EEE/II Sem/EE6201 92
MZCET/EEE/II Sem/EE6201 93
For the a.c. network shown in Fig. determine, using mesh-current analysis,
(a) the mesh currents I1 and I2, (b) the current flowing in the capacitor, and (c) the active
power delivered by the 100∠0◦V voltage source.

MZCET/EEE/II Sem/EE6201 94
MZCET/EEE/II Sem/EE6201 95
 1.4 Steps of Nodal Analysis
1. Choose a reference (ground) node.
2. Assign node voltages to the other nodes.
3. Apply KCL to each node other than the
reference node; express currents in terms of
node voltages.
4. Solve the resulting system of linear equations
for the nodal voltages.

MZCET/EEE/II Sem/EE6201 96
Common symbols for indicating a reference node,
(a) common ground, (b) ground, (c) chassis.

500W 500W

+
I1 V 1kW 500W I2
500W
–

The reference node is called the ground node where V = 0

MZCET/EEE/II Sem/EE6201 97
 500W V2 500W V3
V1
2 3
1
I1 1kW 500W I2
500W

V1, V2, and V3 are unknowns for which we solve

using KCL

MZCET/EEE/II Sem/EE6201 98
 Currents and Node Voltages
V1 500 V2 V1 V1
W
500
500
V1  V2
W
500

KCL at Node 1
V1 500W V
2

I1 V1  V2 V1
500W I1  
500 500
MZCET/EEE/II Sem/EE6201 99
 KCL at Node 2

V1 500W V2 500W V3

1kW
V2  V1 V V  V3
 2  2 0
500 1k 500

KCL at Node 3
V2 500W V3

V3  V2 V3
 I 2
500 I2 500 500
W

MZCET/EEE/II Sem/EE6201 100

Typical circuit for nodal analysis

MZCET/EEE/II Sem/EE6201 101

 At node 1, I1 =I2 +i1 +i2 At node 2 , I2 +i2 = i3

vhigher  vlower
i
R
i1 =

= G1 V 1

i2 =

= G2 (V1 – V2)

i3 =

= G3 V 2 MZCET/EEE/II Sem/EE6201 102

 v1 v1  v2
 I1  I 2  
R1 R2
v1  v2 v2
I2  
R2 R3
 I1  I 2 G1v1  G2 (v1  v2 )
I 2  G2 (v1  v2 )  G3v2

 G1  G2  G2   v1   I1  I 2 
   
  G2 G2  G3   v2   I 2 
 

MZCET/EEE/II Sem/EE6201 103

Calculate the node voltage in the circuit
shown in Fig. i1
i2
At node 1 i1 i2  i3
i4 i5
v1  v2 v1  0 i3
 5 
4 2
At node 2
 i 2  i 5 i1  i 4
v1  v2 v2  0
  10  1 1
5 1 
4 6 24    v   5
4 1
 1     
v2  v1 v2  0 1 1  v2   5
  10  5    
4 6  4 6 4
104
MZCET/EEE/II Sem/EE6201
 Nodal Analysis with Voltage Sources

• Case 1: The voltage source is connected

between a non reference node and the
reference node: The non reference node
voltage is equal to the magnitude of voltage
source and the number of unknown non
reference nodes is reduced by one.
• Case 2: The voltage source is connected
between two non referenced nodes: a
generalized node (super node) is formed.
MZCET/EEE/II Sem/EE6201 105
Nodal Analysis: Example with voltage source (available
with resistance in series)

4 10 V v1
v2
_
 + 
i1 i2 i3 i4
6 10  5A

V1 V 1  10  V2
At v1: i3 +i4 =i2   5
10 4
V1 V 2  10  V1 1 1 1 10
5  V 1(  )  V 2( )  5 
10 4 10 4 4 4
At v2:
i1 +i2 =0 V2 V2  10  V1
 0
6 4
MZCET/EEE/II Sem/EE6201 106
 4V1 + 10V1 + 100 – 10V2 = -200
or
14V1 – 10V2 = -300

4V2 + 6V2 – 60 – 6V1 = 0

or
-6V1 + 10V2 = 60

V1 = -30 V, V2 = -12 V, I1 = -2 A
MZCET/EEE/II Sem/EE6201 107
Nodal Analysis: Example with voltage source (available
between reference node and non reference node)

i4 i1 i2 i3

At node 1, V1 =40V (1)

At node 2, i1 =i2+i3
( +5 (2)
( =5
0.35 V2 =5
V1 =40V
MZCET/EEE/II Sem/EE6201 V2 =14.28V 108
Nodal Analysis: Example Voltage super node.
Given the following circuit. Solve for the indicated nodal voltages.
super node
2
x
v1 v2 _ v3
x +
5 10 V
x x
6A 4 10 

When a voltage source appears between two nodes, an easy way to

handle this is to form a super node. The super node encircles the
voltage source and the tips of the branches connected to the nodes.

MZCET/EEE/II Sem/EE6201 109

Constraint Equation V2 – V3 = -10 Eq 1

At V1 V1  V2 V1  V3
 6 Eq 2
5 2
At super V2  V1 V2 V3 V3  V1
node    0 Eq 3
5 4 10 2

Clearing Eq 1, 2, 3 7V1 – 2V2 – 5V3 = 60 Eq 4

-14V1 + 9V2 + 12V3 = 0 Eq 5

V2 – V3 = -10 Eq 6

V1 = 30 V, V2 = 14.29 V, V3 = 24.29 V
MZCET/EEE/II Sem/EE6201 110
 Nodal Analysis: With Dependent Sources.
Consider the circuit below. We desire to solve for the node voltages
V1 and V2. 2
_
Vx +
v1 v2
 
10 
2A
4

10 V + 5
_
5 Vx

In this case we have a dependent source, 5Vx, that must be reckoned

with. Actually, there is a constraint equation of
V2  V x  V1  0
MZCET/EEE/II Sem/EE6201 111
 At node V1 V1  10 V1 V1  V2
  2
10 5 2

At node V2 V2  V1 V2  5V x
  2
2 4

The constraint equation:

Vx V2  V 1

Clearing the previous equations and substituting

the constraint VX = V2 - V1 gives,
8V1 – 5V2 = 30
-7V1 + 8V2 = -8

Which gives V1 = 6.9V , V2 = 5.03V

MZCET/EEE/II Sem/EE6201 112

Determine the voltage at the nodes in Fig. below

3 i1  ix
v1  v3 v1  v2
At node 1,  3 
4 2

MZCET/EEE/II Sem/EE6201 113

 ix i2  i3
• At node 2
v1  v2 v2  v3 v2  0
  
2 8 4

• At node 3 i1  i2 2ix
v1  v3 v2  v3 2(v1  v2 )
  
4 8 2

 3 1 1
 4   
2 4  v1   3
 1 7 1  
 
   v 2   0  
 2 8 8
 3 9 3   v3   0

 4 8 8 
MZCET/EEE/II Sem/EE6201 114
 Use Nodal analysis, Determine the voltages at nodes 2 &3 and hence determine
the current flowing through 2Ω resistor and the power dissipated in 3 Ω resistor.

V2 =0.3789 V
V3 = -1.571 V

MZCET/EEE/II Sem/EE6201 115

Use Nodal analysis, Determine the voltages at nodes 1 & 2 and hence determine the
current flowing through j4Ω Inductive reactance and the current in the 5Ω resistor.

MZCET/EEE/II Sem/EE6201 116

MZCET/EEE/II Sem/EE6201 117
 Nodal Versus Mesh Analysis

• Both nodal and mesh analyses provide a

systematic way of analyzing a complex network.
• The choice of the better method dictated by
two factors.
• First factor : nature of the particular network.
The key is to select the method that results in
the smaller number of equations.
• Second factor : information required.

MZCET/EEE/II Sem/EE6201 118

 1.5 Phasors
• Adding sinusoidal voltages and currents is frequently
required in the analysis of ac circuits.
The slow way:
– place both sinusoidal waveforms on the same set of axes
and add the magnitudes at every point along the axis.
Long and tedious process with limited accuracy.

A shorter method uses the rotating radius vector.

constant magnitude (length)
one end fixed at the origin
called a phasor when applied to electric circuits.

MZCET/EEE/II Sem/EE6201 119

Sinusoidal waveform – lead/lag

Y4 Lags Y3 by φ
Y2 Leads Y1 by φ

MZCET/EEE/II Sem/EE6201 120

 Phasors
• Adding two waveforms is tricky
• Phasor addition is simpler!

MZCET/EEE/II Sem/EE6201 121

 Phasors
Phasors Waveforms

I1 + I2

I2

I1

MZCET/EEE/II Sem/EE6201 122

 Combination of waveform
• The resultant of the addition (or subtraction) of two sinusoidal
quantities may be determined either:
(a) by plotting the periodic functions graphically (see worked
Problems 13 and 16 in Textbook), or
(b) by resolution of phasors by drawing or calculation (see
worked Problems 14 and 15 in Textbook)

MZCET/EEE/II Sem/EE6201 123

Resistor Circuit Phasors

Electrical Phasor
magnitudes are
always RMS not
peak values

MZCET/EEE/II Sem/EE6201 124

Resistor Circuit Phasors

MZCET/EEE/II Sem/EE6201 125

AC inductor circuits

Circuit diagram Phasor diagram

MZCET/EEE/II Sem/EE6201 126

 AC inductor circuits
Inductive reactance:
In a purely inductive circuit the opposition to the flow of alternating
current is called the inductive reactance,

• where f is the supply frequency, in hertz, and L is the inductance, in

henrys. is proportional to f as shown

MZCET/EEE/II Sem/EE6201 127

 2. Sketch the Phasor diagram

1. Sketch V & I waveforms:

the voltage is phase-shifted by 90 with

respect to the current ie voltage leads
the current or current lags voltage by 90
in a pure inductive circuit

MZCET/EEE/II Sem/EE6201 128

 AC Capacitor circuits
• In a purely capacitive AC circuit, the current Ic leads the
applied voltage Vc by 90◦ (i.e. π/2 rads).
• In a purely capacitive circuit the opposition to the flow of
alternating current is called the capacitive reactance,

– where C is the capacitance in farads.

MZCET/EEE/II Sem/EE6201 129

 Capacitors in AC Circuits
+
vc = Vp.sinωt
-

Waveform: Phasors:

IC

VC

MZCET/EEE/II Sem/EE6201 130

Acronym for AC Circuits

CC Capacitor For a capacitor,

current leads voltage
II current
VV voltage
For an inductor,
II current current lags voltage

LL Inductor

MZCET/EEE/II Sem/EE6201 131

 R-L circuits VR

Vs
VL
VL

f I
𝑨𝒄𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒐 𝑷𝒚𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒈𝒐𝒓𝒂𝒔 𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒎,
𝑽 𝑺 =√ 𝑽 𝑹 +𝑽
𝟐 𝟐 VR
𝑳

VZ= IZ VL= IXL

Z XL

f
f
VR= IR
R
Voltage Triangle
Impedance Triangle
Vs =VZ =IZ
132
I=Vs /Z MZCET/EEE/II Sem/EE6201
 RC circuits
VR
I

f
VC VC
Vs

VR
I
VR =IR 𝑨𝒄𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒐 𝑷𝒚𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒈𝒐𝒓𝒂𝒔 𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒎,
f 𝑽 𝑺 =√ 𝑽 𝑹 +𝑽 𝑪𝟐 𝟐

VC =IXC
R
f
VZ= Vs =IZ XC
Z

Voltage Triangle
Impedance Triangle
Vs =VZ =IZ
I=Vs /Z C 133
MZCET/EEE/II Sem/EE6201
 RLC circuits

Z= R+ j(XL –XC )

VL
XL = X C
VR
I
Impedance Z = R
Vs =VR  It is a purely resistive circuit
VC

134
MZCET/EEE/II Sem/EE6201
 RLC circuits

VL
Z XL -XC
Vs
VL -VC

f
f
R
I VR
VC

Impedance Z = R+ j(XL –XC )

 It is an Inductive circuit
135
MZCET/EEE/II Sem/EE6201
 RLC circuits

VL Impedance Z = R-j(Xc –XL )

 It is a capacitive circuit
VR
I

f R
(VC –VL) f
(XC –XL )
Vs Z

VC

136
MZCET/EEE/II Sem/EE6201
 1.6 Power

• AC Impedance is a complex quantity made up of real

resistance and imaginary reactance.

Z  R  jX ( )
AC Apparent Power is a complex quantity made up of
real active power and imaginary reactive power:

S  P  jQ (VA)

MZCET/EEE/II Sem/EE6201 137

 AC Real (Active) Power (P)
• The Active power is the power that is dissipated in the resistance of the
load.
• It uses the same formula used for DC (V & I are the magnitudes, not the
phasors):
2
2 V
P I R  [watts, W]
R

MZCET/EEE/II Sem/EE6201 138

 AC Imaginary (Reactive) Power (Q)
• The reactive power is the power that is exchanged between
reactive components (inductors and capacitors)
• The formulas look similar to those used by the active power,
but use reactance instead of resistances.
• Units: Volts-Amps-Reactive (VAR)
• Q is negative for a capacitor by convention and positive for
inductor.
– Just like X is negative for a capacitor! (-jXc)
2
2 V
Q I X  [VAR]
X

MZCET/EEE/II Sem/EE6201 139

 AC Apparent Power (S)
• The apparent power is the power that is “appears” to flow to
the load.
• The magnitude of apparent power can be calculated using
similar formulas to those for active or reactive power:
• Units: Volts-Amps (VA)
• V & I are the magnitudes, not the phasors

2
2 V
S VI  I Z  [VA]
Z

MZCET/EEE/II Sem/EE6201 140

 AC Power
• Notice the relationship between Z and S:
Z R  j X ( )
Apparent power calculated with Z

Reactive power calculated with X

Real power calculated with R


MZCET/EEE/II Sem/EE6201 S P  j Q (VA) 141
 Power Triangle
• The power triangle graphically shows the
relationship between real (P), reactive (Q) and
apparent power (S).

S  P2  Q2

S  P  jQL

S S 
Active Power ‘P’= VI Cosθ

Reactive Power ‘Q’= VI Sinθ

Apparent Power ‘S’ = VI MZCET/EEE/II Sem/EE6201 142
 1.7 Power Factor
• From the power triangle it can be seen that
FP = P / S = cos 
• Power factor angle is thus given
 = cos-1(P / S)
• For a pure resistance,  = 0º
• For a pure inductance,  = 90º
• For a pure capacitance,  = -90º S
Q
NOTE: Ө is the phase angle of ZT, not the
current or voltage.

MZCET/EEE/II Sem/EE6201
P 154
 Unity power factor (FP = 1)
• Implies that all of a load’s apparent power is real
power (S = P).
• If FP = 1, then  = 0º.
• It could also be said that the load looks purely
resistive.
• Load current and voltage are in phase.

 Q=0

P,S

MZCET/EEE/II Sem/EE6201 155

 Lagging power factor ( > 0º)
• The load current lags load voltage ELI
• Implies that the load looks inductive.

S
VARind
Q

P

MZCET/EEE/II Sem/EE6201 156

 Leading power factor ( < 0º)
• The load current leads load voltage ICE
• Implies that the load looks capacitive.

P

VARcap
Q
S

MZCET/EEE/II Sem/EE6201 157

 A coil of having resistance of 8Ω and inductance of 32mH is connected to a 230V ,
50Hz supply. Calculate
i. Inductive Reactance ii. Impedance iii. Current
iv. Active power v. Reactive power vi. Apparent Power
vii. Phase angle viii. Power factor

Impedance Z = R+jX
i. Inductive Reactance = 2πfL
= 8+j10
= 10Ω
=
iii. Current ‘I’ = =
iv. Active power = VI Cosφ
= 230*17.9 * cos 510
=2.6kW

v. Reactive power = VI sinφ vi. Apparent Power = VI

= 230*17.9 * sin510 = 230 *17.9
=3.2kVAR =4.1 kV

viii. Power factor =cos 510 = 0.62 lag

vii. Phase angle =51 0

MZCET/EEE/II Sem/EE6201 158

(http://legacy.mos.org/etf/elect.swf)

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