ECOSYSTEM

ECOSYSTEM
• Total biotic and abiotic factor of the environment –
•
• - Present in a particular area is called ecosystem.

• The term ecosystem coined by –

•
• - A. G. Tansley .
Types of Ecosystems

Broadly divided into two categories.

• (i) Terrestrial ecosystem : e.g. Forest, Grassland,

Desert.

• (ii) Aquatic ecosystem : e.g. Sea, freshwater

ecosystem.
On the basis development - two types :

• (a) Natural ecosystem :

• e.g. forest, ocean.

• (b) Anthropogenic or man made or Artificial–

ecosystem :

• e.g. Agriculture/Agroecosystem
• (largest man made ecosystem),
• Garden, Aquarium.
Characteristics of anthropogenic ecosystem :

• (i) Do not possess self regulatory mechanism

• (ii) Simple food chain

• (iii) Little cycling of nutrients

• (iv) Have little diversity

• (v) High productivity

Ecosystem – open system :
Components of Ecosystem

Two Components

• (1) Abiotic

• (2) Biotic
 (1) Abiotic components
• Three types

• (1) Climatic factors :

• Temperature, water, light, wind, humidity, air currents.

• (ii) Edaphic factors :

• Related to the structure and composition of soil.

• (iii) Topographic factors :

• Related to physical features of earth.
• Like - Slope, valley, mountain and plains etc.
(2) Biotic components
• It involves living beings that can be differentiated into
three categories.

• (a) Producers

• (b) Consumers

• (c) Decomposers.
(a) Producers (Autotrophs) :
• Able to synthesize their own food.
• e.g. Green plant, photosynthetic bacteria, Blue green algae.

• Also known as “Converters” or “Transducers”.

• Aquatic ecosystems - Phytoplankton.

• Terrestrial ecosystem - Rooted plants.

• Rooted plants of shallow water are called macrophytes.

(b) Consumers (Heterotrophs) :
• Unable to synthesize their own food.

• Depend upon producers directly or indirectly.

• They are called heterotrophs.

(i) Primary consumers / Herbivores :
(Convert plant material into animal material).

• Obtain their nutrition from producers.

• Terrestrial ecosystem : Grasshopper, cow and deer.

• Aquatic ecosystem : Molluscs, tadpole and mosquito larvae.

• Key industry animals.

 (ii) Secondary consumers / Primary carnivores :
• Animals which feed on herbivores.

• Terrestrial ecosystem :-

• - Toad, spiders, lizards, centipedes and

insectivorous birds.

• Aquatic ecosystem :-

• - Hydra, frog and some fishes.

(iii) Tertiary consumers / secondary
carnivores :
• Carnivores which feed upon secondary consumers

• Aquatic ecosystem :- Large fishes

• Terrestrial ecosystem :- Snake

• They may be quaternary or fourth order consumers which prey upon

secondary carnivores.
(iv) Top Carnivores:

• The carnivores which are not eaten by others.

• They may belong to the category of primary, secondary, tertiary

carnivores.

• e.g., Tiger, lion, panthers and falcon,

 (c) Decomposers (Reducers) :

• Microscopic organisms like - Bacteria and fungi.

• Degrade or decompose dead organic matter.

• Also called - Microconsumers or osmotrophs.

• Complex organic substances → Simple organic substances →

Inorganic compounds,
Functions of decomposers in
ecosystem :

• 1.Natural scavengers –
• - Reduce organic remains
of earth.

• 2. Replenish the soil naturally with minerals –

•
• - Essential for growth of plants and maintenance of
ecosystem.
 Some other categories of living beings

• (1) Parasites – These belong to diverse groups,

e.g. Bacteria, fungi, protozoa, worms etc.

• (2) Detritivores – These are animals which feed on detritus.

e.g. Termites, earthworm etc.

They are helpful in quick disposal of the dead bodies.

• (3) Scavengers - Animals feeds on dead or injured animals.
•
• - Clean the earth of organic garbage.

e.g.. Carrion beetles, marabou storks, crow and

Vultures (full-time scavengers).

ECOSYSTEM - STRUCTURE
• Important structural features include:

• (i) Species Composition : Identification and enumeration of plant and

animal species.

• For example - Tropical rain forest is dense with amazing number of

biological species.
• (ii) Stratification :

• Vertical distribution of different species occupying different levels.

For Exa.-

• (a) Top layer – Trees

• (b) Second layer - Shrubs.

• (c) Bottom layer - Grasses and herbs.

ECOSYSTEM - FUNCTION
• Ecosystem possesses a natural tendency to persist.

• The key functional aspects of the ecosystem are:

• (I) Productivity

• (II) Decomposition

• (III) Energy flow

• (IV) Nutrient cycling

(I) Productivity :
• Synthesis of energy containing organic or biomass –
• - by any trophic level in unit
area in unit time.

• (I) Primary productivity :-

• Total energy accumulation in green plants –

• - In the form of biomass/organic matter

• - In a unit area
• - Over a period of time
•
Q. Primary production in the ecosystem is expressed in terms of weight as

(1) g m-2

(2) k cal m-2

(3) g m-2 yr¹

(4) k cal m-2 yr-1

• Primary production –

• It is expressed in terms of - Weight (g m–2) or

- Energy (kcal m–2).

• Primary productivity - The rate of biomass production by plants.

• It is expressed in terms of –
- Weight (g m–2 yr–1) or
- Energy (kcal m–2 yr–1).
• Primary productivity involves two types :

• (a) Gross primary Productivity (GPP) :

•
• (b) Net Primary Productivity (NPP) :

•
• NPP = GPP – R (Respiration).
(2) Secondary productivity :
• It is the rate of assimilation of food energy by the consumers.

• Loss of energy through respiration is –

• 20% in producers.

• 30% in Herbivores.

• 60% in carnivores.
Factors affecting primary
productivity :
• Several biotic and abiotic factors affects magnitude of primary productivity.

• (1) Solar radiations available.

• (2) Temperature

• (3) Soil moisture

• (4) Availability of nutrients

Productivity of biosphere :
• Annual NPP of whole biosphere –
• - Approximately 170 billion tons (dry weight) of organic matter.

• The productivity of - Oceans are only 55 billion tons.

• - Terrestrial ecosystem is 115 billion tons.

• 1. Most productive ecosystem - Coral reefs, tropical rain forest, sugarcane field.

• 2.Least productive ecosystem - Desert and deep sea.

• Reasons for the low productivity of oceans :

• In deep marine habitats two main limiting factors are

• (i) Light : It decreases with depth.

• (ii) Nutrients : Most limiting nutrient of marine ecosystem is

nitrogen.
 Breakdown of complex organic matter to
inorganic raw materials.

Major site of decomposition is –

- Upper layer of soil - Terrestrial habitats
II. Decomposition
- Bottom - Water bodies.

Raw material for decomposition - Detritus

Dead remains - leaves, bark, flowers, fecal

matter.
 • Three important steps of decomposition.

• (A) Fragmentation,

Decomposition
• (B) Leaching and

Processes • (C) Catabolism.

• (A) Fragmentation of Detritus :

• Small invertebrate animals are called detrivores feed on detritus.

• e.g. earthworms, termites.

• A part of detritus eaten by detrivores –

• - Comes out in highly pulverised state in their faeces.
• (B) Leaching :-

• Water-soluble substances (e.g., sugars, inorganic nutrients)

•
• - Go down into the soil horizon

• - by percolating water and

• - Get precipitated as unavailable salts.

• (C) Catabolism :

• By bacteria and fungi.

• (Secrete enzymes over the fragmented detritus).

• They act as "nature's scavengers".

• Produces two substances –

•
• (a) Humification and (b) Mineralisation
• (a) Humification: Decomposition of detritus to form humus.

• Humus is - Dark coloured, amorphous, slightly acidic,

• - More or less decomposed organic matter.
• - Rich in cellulose, lignin, tannins, resin, etc.

• It is highly resistant to microbial action.

• It undergoes decomposition at an extremely slow rate.

• Humus is colloidal and functions as reservoir of nutrients.

• (b) Mineralisation :-

• Release of inorganic substances (e.g., CO2, H2O, minerals)

• - From organic matter or humus.

• They are formed along with simple and soluble organic substances.
 Nutrient Immobilisation :

• Immobilisation - Mineral uptake by soil microbes and conversion to organic matter.

• Immobilisation - Protects the nutrients from being washed out.

• lost from ecosystem.
Factors Affecting Decomposition :

• (a) Chemical nature of detritus:

• Decomposition is slow - Lignin, chitin, tannins (phenolics) and cellulose.

• Decomposition is rapid - Nitrogenous compounds.

• (Proteins, nucleic acids) and
• carbohydrates.
• (b) Temperature:
• At more than 25°C - Decomposers are very active in soils.
• having good moisture and aeration.

• In humid tropical regions - Does not take more than 3-4 months for
complete decomposition.

• Under low temperature (< 10 °C) of soils –

• Rate of decomposition is very slow
• (Even moisture and aeration are optimum).
• (c) Moisture:

• An optimum moisture –
• Quicker decomposition of detritus.

• Reduction in moisture –
• Reduces decomposition.

• Excessive moisture –
• Impedes/prevents decomposition
• (d) Aeration:

• It is required for activity of decomposers and detritivores.

• Warm and moist environment favors decomposition.

• low temperature and anaerobiosis inhibit decomposition.

III. Energy Flow

• Sun is the only source of

energy.
•
(except for deep sea
hydrothermal ecosystem).
Source
of
Energy
• Energy does not remain trapped permanent in any organisms.

Energy -
- Either passed on to the higher trophic level
- or becomes available to detrivores or decomposers after dies.

• Flow of energy is always unidirectional or one way.

• Solar radiation → Producers → Herbivores → Carnivores…and so on.

 • The storage, expenditure, and
transformation of energy –

Energy flow Follow two law of thermodynamics.

follows –
• (A) First law of thermodynamics –
laws of
thermodynamics • Energy is neither created nor destroyed,
but can be transformed from one state
to another.
(B) Second law of thermodynamics –
• No transfer of energy occurs unless and until -
• It is accompanied by degradation or dissipation of energy
from concentrated to dispersed form.

• Energy of food is concentrated form.

• Highly dispersed form is heat.

 • A series of organisms with-

• Repeated eating and being eaten

• - Food chain.
V. Food
Chain • Each level in a food chain called –
• - Trophic level.
 • (i) Grazing Food Chain (GFC) or Predator food
chain

Types of • (ii) Detritus Food Chain (DFC) or Saprophytic

Food food chain
Chain:
• (iii) Parasitic Food Chain (PFC) or Auxilliary
food chain
(i) Grazing Food Chain (GFC)
• It starts from producers. Source of energy is sun.

• GFC is major conduit of energy flow in aquatic ecosystem.

• Size of organisms commonly increase at higher trophic levels.

(ii) Detritus Food Chain (DFC)

• It starts from –

• - Dead organic matter

that is eaten by
detrivores
(Earthworm).
(iii)
Parasitic • Size of the organisms finally reduces at
higher trophic level (parasite).
Food
Chain • e.g., Tree → herbivore birds → lice and bugs.
(PFC)
Food Web :
• Network of interconnected food chains at different trophic levels.

• Food webs provides stability to ecosystem.

• Food webs operate because of -

• - Taste preference for particular food and unavailability of food.

• Sparrow is a – (i) Primary consumer when it eats seeds, fruits etc.

(ii) Secondary consumer when it eats insects and worms.

 • Proposed by Lindeman in 1942.

• Only 10% of energy/biomass is transferred from one

trophic level to next trophic levels.
Ten Percent Law
of • In herbivores - About 10% of energy in the food is
Energy Transfer: fixed into animal flesh.
• 90% is consumed in ingestion, respiration,
maintenance of body heat and other activities.

• When a carnivore consumes that herbivore, again

about 10% of energy is fixed.
• At each transfer only 10% of the total energy is actually available to the
next trophic level.

• So energy decreases drastically within 2-3 trophic levels.

• An ecosystem can support only a limited number of trophic levels

hardly, 3-5.

• Respiratory loss gradually increases in successive trophic levels.

• It is 20%, 30% and 60% respectively at producer, consumer and top

carnivore level.
• Standing state or quality :-

• All the inorganic substances present in an

ecosystem - Per unit area at a given time.

• Standing crop:-

• Amount of living material present in

different trophic levels at a given time.
Ecological pyramid (Eltonian pyramids)
• Graphic representation of ecological parameters.

• Concept was given by - Charls Elton (1927).

• (i) Pyramid of Number of individuals

• (ii) Pyramid of Biomass.
• (iii) Pyramid of Energy.

• Producer placed at the base and

• Top consumer to top.

(i) Pyramids of Number :
• Graphic representation of –
• - Number of individuals per unit
area
• (In different trophic levels).
(ii) Pyramid of Biomass
• Graphic representation of –
• - Amount of biomass per unit area.
• (In different trophic levels).
(iii) Pyramid of Energy

• Graphic representation of-

- Amount of energy trapped

- Per unit area and time.

In different trophic levels.

• It is always upright in all the

ecosystems.
Limitations of Ecological Pyramids

• (i) It does not take into account the same species belonging to two or more
trophic levels.
• e.g., Insectivorous plants.

• (ii) It assumes a simple food chain and does not accommodate a food web.

• (iii) Saprophytes, decomposers, microbes and detrivores are -

• - Not given any place in ecological pyramids.