Trees

Hierarchies

Many ways to represent tree-like

information:
A I. A
1.B
B C
a. D
i. E
D G
b. F
F
2.C
E
a. G A
linked
outlines E
hierarchy
, D B
indentati G C F
(((E):D), F):B, ons
(G):C):Alabeled
nested,
nested
parenthesis
sets
Definition
A tree T is defined as a finite set of
one or more nodes such that:
a) There is a specially designed node called the root,
b) Remaining nodes are partitioned in to n (n>0) disjoint
sets T1, T2,…, Tn , where each Ti is a tree. T1, T2,…, Tn are
called sub trees of the root.
A

B C D T3

T1
G H I J
E F

L M
T2
K
 Applications of Tree Data Structure
• Trees are used to store simple as well as complex
data. Here simple means an int value, char value
and complex data (structure).

• Trees are often used for implementing other types of

data structures like hash tables, sets, and maps.

• A self-balancing tree, Red-black tree is used in

kernel scheduling to preempt massively multi-
processor computer operating system use.

• Another variation of tree, B-trees are used to store

tree structures on disc. They are used to index a
large number of records.
 Applications of Tree Data
Structure(Cont.)
• B-trees are also used for secondary indexes in
databases, where the index facilitates a select
operation to answer some range criteria.

• Trees are used for compiler construction.

• Trees are also used in database design.

• Trees are used in file system directories.

• Trees are also widely used for information storage

and retrieval in symbol tables.
 Terminology

• r is the parent of its children r1,

r2, ..., rk.
• r1, r2, ..., rk are
siblings.
• root = distinguished node, usually ro
drawn at top. Has no parent. ot path
internal from
• If all children of a node are Λ, the root to
node
node is a leaf. Otherwise, the node w
is a internal node. pare
u nt
• A path in the tree is a sequence of of w
nodes u1, u2, ..., um such that each
children of u w
of the edges (u, ui+1) exists.
(they are
leav
• A node u is an ancestor of v if siblings)
es
there is a path from u to v.

• A node u is a descendant of v if
there is a path from v to u.
Height & Depth

• The height of node u is the length of the longest path from

u to a leaf.
• The depth of node u is the length of the path from the
root to u.
• Height of the tree = maximum depth of its
nodes.
• A level is the set of all nodes at the
same depth.

Depth = 3 Numbers
0 in nodes
Depth = 1 2 give
1 heights

Depth = 0 0 0 1
2

Depth = 0 0
3 0
Subtrees, forests, and graphs

• A subtree rooted at u is the tree formed from

u and all its descendants.
• A forest is a (possibly empty) set of trees.
The set of subtrees rooted at the children of
r form a forest.

• As we’ve defined them, trees are not a

special case of graphs:
- Our trees are oriented (there is a root which
implicitly defines directions on the edges).

- A free tree is a connected graph with no

cycles.
Basic Properties

• Every node except the root has exactly one

parent.

• A tree with n nodes has n-1 edges

(every node except the root has an
edge to its parent).

• There is exactly one path from the root to

each node. (Suppose there were 2 paths,
then some node along the 2 paths would
have 2 parents.)
Binary Trees – Definition

• An ordered tree is a tree for which the

order of the children of each node is
considered important.
r r

r1
r2
r3 r4 ≠ r4 r3 r1 r2

• A binary tree is an ordered tree such that

each node has ≤ 2 children.
• Call these two children the left and right
children.
Properties of binary tree

In any binary tree, the maximum no. of nodes on level l

is 2l , where l>=0.

Maximum no. of nodes possible in a binary tree of

height h is 2h+1-1.

Minimum no. of nodes possible in a binary tree of height

h is h+1.

For strict binary tree, if n is the no. of nodes and e is the

no. of edges, then, n= e+1
 Example Binary
Trees
The edge
cases:

Singl Empt
Only Only
e y
left right
node Binar
child child
y
Tree

Small binary
tree:
Full and Complete Binary
Trees
• If every node has either 0 or 2 children, a binary tree is
called full.

• If the lowest d-1 levels of a binary tree of height d are

filled and level d is partially filled from left to right,
the tree is called complete.

• If all d levels of a height-d binary tree are filled, the

tree is called
perfect.

ful comple perfe

l te ct
Extended Binary
Trees

Replace each
missing child with
external node

Do you need a
special flag to tell
which nodes are
Binary Extended binary
external?
tree tree
Every internal node has exactly 2 children.

Every leaf (external node) has exactly 0 children.

Each external node corresponds to one Λ in the

original tree – let’s us distinguish different instances
of Λ.
Representing General Trees with Binary
Trees
A A

B C D B C D

E E
E F G E F G

H H

General K-ary Representatio

Tree n as Binary
Tree
How would you implement an ordered general tree using a
binary tree?
Ans: First Child/ Next Sibling Representation
 # of External Nodes in Extended
Binary Trees
Thm. An extended binary tree with n internal nodes has
n+1 external nodes.

Proof. By induction on n.
X(n) := number of external nodes in binary tree with
n internal nodes.

Base case: X(0) = 1 = n + 1.

Induction step: Suppose theorem is true for

all i < n. Because n ≥ 1, we have:

Extended binary tree

X(n) = X(k) + X(n-k-1)

= k+1 + n-k-1 + 1
= n+ 1
☐

k nodes n-k-1
(for some 0 nodes Related to Thm
≤ k < n) 5.2 in your
Alternative Proof

Thm. An extended binary tree with n internal nodes has n+1

external nodes.

Proof. Every node has 2 children pointers, for a total of 2n

pointers.

Every node except the root has a parent, for a total of n - 1 nodes

with parents. These n - 1 parented nodes are all children, and each

takes up 1 child pointer.

(pointers) - (used child pointers) = (unused child

pointers) 2n - (n-1) = n + 1

Thus, there are n + 1 null pointers.

Every null pointer corresponds to one external node by

construction. ☐
# Nodes in a Perfect Tree of Height h

Thm. A perfect tree of height h has 2h+1 - 1

nodes.
Proof. By induction on h.

Let N(h) be number of nodes in a perfect tree of height h.

Base case: when h = 0, tree is a single node. N(0) =

1 = 20+1 - 1. Induction step: Assume N(i) = 2i+1 - 1 for

0 ≤ i < h.

A perfect binary tree of height h consists of 2 perfect

binary trees of height h-1 plus the root:
N(h)

= 2 × N(h - 1) + 1
= 2 × (2h-1+1 - 1) + 1
= 2 × 2h - 2 + 1
 Full Binary Tree Theorem
Thm. In a non-empty, full binary tree, the number of internal
nodes is always 1 less than the number of leaves.

Proof. By induction on n.
L(n) := number of leaves in a non-empty, full tree of n internal
nodes.

Base case: L(0) = 1 = n + 1.

Induction step: Assume L(i) = i + 1 for i < n.

Given T with n internal nodes, remove two sibling leaves.

T’ has n-1 internal nodes, and by induction hypothesis, L(n-1)

= n leaves. Replace removed leaves to return to tree T.

Turns a leaf into an internal node, adds two new leaves.

Thus: L(n) = n + 2 - 1 = n + 1.

Thm 5.1 in your book.

Representation of binary tree

Implicit & Explicit representation

Implicit representation
Sequential / Linear representation, using arrays.

Explicit representation
Linked representation, using pointers.
Sequential representation(Using 1D Array )

• This representation is static.

• Block of memory for an array is allocated, before
storing the actual tree.
• Once the memory is allocated, the size of the tree will
be fixed.
• Nodes are stored level by level, starting from the
zeroth level.
• Root node is stored in the starting memory location,
as the first element of the array.
• Following rules are applied for storing the elements
of binary tree in the 1D array.
• The root R of T is stored in location 0.
• For any node with index i in range 0 =< i < n:
• left(i): 2i+1
• right(i): (2i + 2)
• parent(i): (i-1)/2
Array Implementation for Complete
Binary Trees A
0
B 1 C
2

D 3 E F G

Mappin
g
of nodes
H I J K L M
to
integers
A B C D E F G H I J K L M
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
14
Sequential representation- Merits and
Demerits
Merits
• Random and Faster Access-Any node can be
accessed from any other node by calculating the
index.
• Space -Here, data are stored simply without any
pointers to their successor or predecessor.
• Easy -Inserting a new node and deletion of an
existing node is easy.
Demerits-
• Wastage of Space- If binary tree becomes
unbalanced(skewed) there will be lots of unused
array cells
• Limited size- Can store fixed size of binary tree
 Linked Representation of Binary Trees

• In computer’s memory, a binary tree can be

maintained either using a linked representation or
using sequential representation.
• In linked representation of binary tree, every node
will have three parts: the data element, a pointer to
the left node and a pointer to the right node. So in C,
the binary tree is built with a node type given as
below.
struct node
{
struct node* lc;
int data;
struct node* rc;
Linked list representation: Example
4

2 7

1 3 9

4
1 1 8

2 x 7

x 1 3 x 9 x

x 1 x x 1 x x 8 x
 Operations on Binary tree
• Traversal
• Insertion of a node
• Deletion of a node
• Searching
• Height of a tree
• Depth of a node
• Number of nodes in tree