CHAPTER -4

DC MACHINE
Introduction
 DC machines are versatile and extensively used in
industry.
 A wide variety of volt-ampere or torque-speed
characteristics can be obtained from various connections
of the field winding.
 DC machines can work as generators and motors
 Almost all practical motors and generators convert energy
from one form to another through the action of a
magnetic field.
1
 Cont…
In generator mode: the machine is driven by a
prime mover (steam turbine or a diesel engine) with the
mechanical energy converted into electrical energy
In the motor mode: the machine drives a
mechanical load with the electrical energy supplied
converted into mechanical energy.
• The versatility of dc motor in combination with simple
drive system will insure their continued use in different
applications.

2
 DC motors
• It is extensively used in industry to convert electrical
energy in to mechanical energy.
• Because of the ease with which they can be controlled, dc
motors have been frequently used in applications
requiring a wide range of motor speeds or precise control
of motor output.
• It is used in rolling mills, in automotive vehicles as
starter motors, in overhead cranes for electric trains and
blower motors

3
 Generators

 Generator is an electrical machines that convert M.E in

to E.E by the principles of electromagnetic induction
 In general there are two types of generators
- DC Generator
- AC Generators
 DC Generator converts mechanical energy to DC
electrical energy
 While AC generator converts mechanical energy to AC
electrical energy

4
 DC generators
• Almost there is no modern use of dc machines as a
generators.
• Presently, all the land based electrical power networks
are a.c systems of generation, transmission and
distribution.
 But DC generators are used in aircrafts, ships and road
mounted vehicles which are isolated from land based ac
networks as a power supply
 They are still being used to produce power in small back
up and stand-by generating plants to provide
uninterrupted power supply.

5
 Cont…
 The universal use of ac systems is on account of their:
a) Lower generation and transmission costs,
b) Higher efficiency (large bulk ac power can be
transmitted and distributed over long distance at
much HV that are impossible in dc system),
c) Greater reliability on account of interconnection and
control.

6
 Principles of operation of Generators

When a conductor cuts a magnetic flux an e.m.f is

induced in it by Electro-Magnetic Induction.
Electro-Magnetic Induction takes place when
1.The magnetic flux linked with a circuit changes,
or
2. A conductor cuts the magnetic flux.
Magnitude of the induced emf is equal to the rate of
change of flux linkage
e= -dф/dt
Magnetic field variation can be caused by:
a) Relative motion
b) Varying flux

7
 Cont…
The induced e.m.f causes a current
to flow if the conductor circuit is
closed
 Hence the two basic fundamental
parts of an electrical generator are
i) A magnetic field.
ii)A conductor or conductors
which can so move to cut the flux. Figure 4.1

8
 Simple AC Generator
• A single loop of wire is rotated
between the poles of magnets.
• Each end of a conductor is connected
to a slip ring, which in turn rotates
under carbon brush.
• Carbon brush-slip ring arrangement
facilitates connection between the
rotating loop conductor and external
Figure 4.2
circuit.
• AC e.m.f will be induced at the
conductor and picked by the brush
terminals. 9
Figure 4.3 10
 Simple DC Generator
Simple DC generator with
commutator & slip ring is used
to generate DC voltage.
Each terminal of the loop
conductor is connected to each
segment of the slip ring.
A commutator is a switching
device which reverses the
external connection to the
armature as the current reverses
its direction
A pulsating DC is generated by
these methods. Figure 4-4

11
 Cont…
Drawback:
 A pulsating DC is not often
satisfactory in most practical
application,
Like communication equipments
causes hamming to radio
output.
 Methods to Eliminate
- More number of poles
- More Armature coils
Figure 4.5

12
 CONSTRUCTION OF DC MACHINE
DC generators and DC motors have the same general
construction.
 In fact, when the machine is being assembled, the
workmen usually do not know whether it is a d.c.
generator or motor.
Any d.c. generator can be run as a d.c. motor and vice-
versa.
The dc machines used for industrial applications have
essentially two major parts:
a) Field system (Stator)
b) Armature (Rotor)

13
 Cont…

1. The field system: is located on stationary part of the

machine called stator,
 It is designed to produce uniform magnetic field
within which the armature rotates, and therefore, it
provides the necessary excitation (cause) for operation
The stator of the machine consists of the following:
i) Yoke (Frame): is constructed from Cast steel and
serves as a mechanical support for entire assembly.
ii) Field winding: consists of a few turns of heavy wire
for a series field or many turns of fine wire for a shunt
field. Essentially, the field coils are electromagnets
whose ampere turns provide a MMF.
14
 Cont…
iii) Field pole: - constructed from laminated steel and
welded to the yoke after the assembly of field windings
has been inserted on them.
It is designed to produce the main flux.
2. Armature consists of : armature core with slots,
armature winding accommodated in slots, brush,
commutator and the shaft
 Generally the armature is the rotating part of a DC
machine where the process of electromechanical energy
conversion takes place.
 The purpose of the armature is to rotate the conductors in
the uniform magnetic field and to induce an alternating
emf in its winding.
15
 Cont…
a) The armature core: - constructed from laminated steel
to reduce hysteresis and eddy current loss in the core.
b) Brush
 Used to ensure the electrical connection b/n rotating
commutator and stationary external load circuit
 Is needed to collect the current from rotating commutator or
to lead the current to it.
 Brushes are made from carbon or graphite compounds in
the shape of rectangular block.
 They are firmly held against the commutator by means of
spring.
 Brush rings are located at the commutator end.
16
 c) Commutator
 It is mounted on the rotor of a DC machine and it performs
mechanical rectification of power with the help of brush.
 AC to DC in case of generator
 DC to AC in case of motors operation.
 It consists of copper segments, individually insulated from each
other and mounted on the shaft of the machine.
 The ends of armature coils are connected to the commutator,
and together with the brush rectifies the alternating emf induced
in the armature coils

Figure4-6: Commutator and Brush

17
Cut--away view of DC Machines

Figure 4.7
18
 Commutation

• The currents induced in armature windings of a d.c.

generator are AC.
• To make their flow unidirectional in the external circuit, we
need a commutator.
• The reversal of current takes place along magnetic neutral
axis or brush axis, when the two commutator segments to
which the coil is connected are being short circuited by
brush.
• This process by which current in the short-circuited coil is
reversed while it crosses the M.N.A. is called commutation.
• The brief period during which coil remains short-circuited
is known as commutation period Tc

19
 Cont…

As shown in fig.4-8(a), in the first

half revolution current flows along
(ABMLCD) i.e brush no. 1 in contact
with segment (a) acts as positive end of
the supply and ‘b’ as the negative end.
In the next half revolution, fig. 4-8(b),
the direction of the induced current in
the coil has reversed.
But at the same time, the positions
segments ‘a’ and ‘b’ have also reversed
with the result that brush no. 1 comes
in touch with segment ‘b’ which is
positive in this case
Figure. 4-8
20
 Cont…
• Hence, current in the load resistance again flows from
M to L
• The wave form of the current in the external circuit is
shown in fig. 4-8 (c). this current is unidirectional but
not continuous like pure direct current
• Even if the current induced in the armature of a dc
generator is alternating, it becomes unidirectional in the
external circuit, due to the rectifying action of the
commutator.

21
 Types of armature

There are two types of armature

constructions:
Ring type
a. Coils are wound around a hallow iron
core.
b. Taps are taken at regular intervals to be
connected to the commutator
Ring type
c. Early design and seldom used today
Drum type
i. Current armature construction standard.
ii. Coils are inserted into slots in the
cylindrical armature core
iii. The ends of the coil are connected in
series at the commutator segments. Drum type
22
 Armature windings
Depending upon the manner in
which the armature windings are
connected to the commutator
segments, there are two types of
armature winding in a d.c. machine
(1) lap winding (2) wave winding.
Lap winding
a) The end of one coil is connected
to the start of next coil at the
adjacent commutator segment.
b) Number of parallel current path
=Number of poles
i.e. a=p Figure 4-9

23
 Cont…
Wave winding
a) The end of the
first coil
connected to the
start of the second
coil under the next
main pole.
b) It has only two
parallel current
path regardless of
the number of
poles.
i.e. a= 2
Figure 4-10

24
Comparison of wave & lap windings

In wave winding, for the given number of

poles & armature conductors, more EMF is
induced than lap winding.
For high voltage & low current wave
winding is used
For low voltage & high current lap winding
is used, because, it has more parallel paths of
conductors

25
 Classification of DC Machines
 According to the method of their field excitation dc
machines are classified as:
Separately excited and Self excited
1. Separately excited
 The generator is not supply its own field
excitation.
 The field winding is excited from independent
separate external DC source
 It needs external DC source in order to bring them in
to operation (to get residual magnetism).
 it is used in laboratories where large voltage variation
is essential for lab. experiment 26
Separately Excited DC Generator

Figure 4.11 (a) Separately Excited DC Generator

27
 Separately Excited DC Generator

Figure 4.11 (b) Connections of separately Excited DC Generator

The output voltage Eg depends upon the speed of rotation
of armature and the field current.
The greater the speed and field current, greater is the Eg
Separately excited d.c. generators are rarely used in practice.
 The d.c. generators are normally of self-excited type.
28
 Separately Excited DC Motor

Figure 4.12 Connections of separately excited dc Motor

29
 Self - Excited DC Generator

 The field winding is excited or supplied from the

output of the generator itself.
 In these machines, the field poles must have a residual
magnetism,
 So that when the armature rotates, a residual voltage
appears across the armature.
 This residual voltage should establish a current in the
field winding so as to reinforce the residual flux.
 Residual magnetism will be used to start generator
operation, voltage build up process
 Residual magnetism- retained magnetism by an
electromagnet after a magnetizing force is
disconnected 30
 Classification of self excited DC Machine

 Based on the connection of the field winding with the

armature winding, a self-excited dc machine can be
sub-divided in to three groups.
• Shunt wound
• Series Wound
• Compound Wound a) short shunt
b) long shunt

31
 Shunt Wound Generator

The field winding is connected in parallel with the

armature winding.
The shunt field winding has many turns of fine wire
having high resistance.
Therefore, only a part of armature current flows through
shunt field winding (i.e field current Ish is very small).
The excitation current varies in accordance with the
output voltage
A flow of armature current causes voltage drop across the
armature (IaRa), and in turn causes a decrease in excitation
current and output voltage.

32
 Cont…
 The voltage across the armature terminals and the
shunt field is the same and for this reason a shunt field
may be called Voltage operated field

Figure 4.13 Shunt Generator

33
 Cont…

Hence, variation in load current causes output voltage

fluctuation, requires regulation
The drop in terminal voltage with the application of
load is relatively small, as the internal resistance of the
armature coil is small.
Thus, shunt generators are referred to as constant
voltage generators.

Figure 4.14

34
 Voltage build-up of Shunt generators

• When the generator is run at constant speed, some e.m.f.

will be generated due to residual magnetism in the main pole.
• This e.m.f will circulate field current If which in turn
produces additional flux to reinforce the original residual ф.
• This process continues, and the generator builds up the
normal generated voltage following the occ.

Figure 4.15 : Voltage build up in a self excited dc generator

35
 Cont…
• As shown in figure 4-16 below, in shunt generator the
voltage build up depends up on the field circuit resistance
(Rf)

Figure 4-16: Effect of field resistance on voltage build up

• If field resistance is Rf1 then the generator will build upVt1
• If field resistance is Rf2 then the generator will build up Vt2
• If field resistance is Rc then the generator will build up Vt3
36
 Cont…
• If the field resistance is increased, the slop of resistance
line also increases
• The field resistance tangent to occ is called critical
resistance (Rc) for the shunt generator.
• Rc is the maximum field circuit resistance (for a given
speed) with which the generator would just excite
• If the field resistance is increased beyond Rc the
generator will fall to excite. i.e stop voltage build up
• For proper voltage builds up the following are required
- Residual magnetism,
- Field MMF should aid Residual magnetism
- Rf < Rc
37
 Series Wound Generator
The field winding is connected in series with armature
winding so that whole armature current flows through
the field winding as well as the load.
Since the field winding carries the total load current, it
has a few turns of thick wire having low resistance.
 In other words, the series field current depends on the
armature current and in view of this; a series field may be
called a current operated field.

Figure 4.17 Series Wound Generator

38
 Cont…

Figure 4.18
The output voltage linearly increases with armature
current up to field saturation point, after this point the
voltage instantly drops. and the current remains
constant.
Thus, it is referred to as constant current generator
Series generators are rarely used except for special
purposes e.g., as boosters.
39
 Compound Wound Generator
In a compound-wound generator, there are two sets of
field windings on each pole
One is in series and the other in parallel with the
armature.
Thus it consist of series and shunt field coils.
The series field compensates the drop in voltage that
takes place due to armature resistance. Thus the output
voltage is fairly constant

Figure 4.19
40
  From the view point of connections a compound wound
generator may have:
(a) Short Shunt in which the shunt field winding is connected
across the armature winding[Fig. 4-20 (i)].
(b) Long Shunt: the shunt field is connected across the series
connection of the armature and series winding or line terminals
as shown in Figure [Fig. 4-20(ii)].
However, there is no appreciable difference in the operating
characteristics of short and long – shunt.

Figure 4.20: Short and Long shunt wound generators 41

The field windings of a compound DC generator can be
wound into two types:
Cumulative and Differential
1. Cumulative: When series field aids the shunt field, so
that the resultant air gap flux per pole is increases,
i.e. the m.m.f in the series field adds the shunt field mmf
2. Differential: the series field opposes the shunt field so
that the resultant air gap flux per pole is decreased, or the
m.m.f in series field opposes the shunt field m.m.f

42
 Cont…
Depending on the degree of compounding, proportionality
between series and shunt winding, compound generators are
classified as:
Under compounded: VFL of compound generator is higher than
shunt generator but lower than VNL
Flat compounded: VFL = VNL
Over compounded: VFL > VNL

Figure 4.21 Characteristic curves of Cumulative Compound Generator

43
 Armature Reaction
is the effect of magnetic flux set up
by armature current on the main flux
Armature flux is created by the
current flows through the armature
coil
This flux is at right angle to the main
flux and tends to distort and weaken
the flux coming from the main pole
This distortion and weakening of the
main flux is said to be armature
reaction, and causes the neutral plane
to shift Figure 4.22

44
 Figure 4. 23
The armature flux has two effects:
(i) It demagnetises or weakens the main flux which leads
to reduction of generated voltage
(ii) It cross-magnetizes or distorts it, this causes sparking
at the brush
Shifting of the neutral plane due to armature reaction
results in arcing
45
 Cont…
 It should be noted that both distorting and demagnetizing
effects will increase with increase in the armature
current.
 To ensure good commutation, the brushes must be placed in
the neutral zone, however due to distortion of the main flux,
the neutral zone is shifted which results commutator arcing
 Armature reaction is minimized by:
1. Brush shift method
2. Using inter-poles
3. Using compensating winding
Brush shift method: The brushes should be shifted in the
direction of rotation to avoid a heavy short-circuit current
and sparking at brushes. 46
 Inter-pole
Have the same polarity to the main pole
and placed mid way b/n the main pole
Inter-poles set up flux equal and
opposite to the armature flux.
The inter-pole windings are connected
in series with the armature and carry full
armature current
so that the respective fluxes rise and fall
together as the load current changes.
By cancelling the armature effect in this
way, we no longer have cross- Figure 4.24
magnetize and demagnetizing effect of
armature reaction.
47
 Compensating winding
Used for large DC machines which are
subjected to large fluctuations in load
Their function is to neutralize the cross
magnetizing effect of armature reaction.
They are connected in series with armature
winding
The current in compensating winding
flows in opposite direction to that flowing
Figure 4.25
in armature conductors
So it produce a magnetic flux equal to
armature flux but opposite in direction
this neutralize the effect.
48
 Cont…
• In the absence of compensating windings, the flux will be
suddenly shifting backward and forward with every change
in load.
• This shifting of flux will induce e.m.f. in the armature coils
• The magnitude of this e.m.f. will depend upon the rapidity
and amount of changes in load.
• It may be so high as to strike an arc between the
consecutive commutator segments across the top of the
mica sheets separating them.
• This may further develop into a flashover around the whole
commutator thereby short circuiting the whole armature.

49
 Demagnetizing AT per Pole
• Since armature demagnetizing ampere-turns are
neutralized by adding extra ampere-turns to the main
field winding, it is essential to calculate their number.
• But it should be remembered that the number of turns is
equal to half the number of conductors because two
conductors make one turn
Let Z = total number of armature conductors
I = current in each armature conductor
= Ia/ 2 …for wave winding
=Ia /P ... for lap winding
ϴm = mechanical or angular degrees,

50
 Cont…
• Demagnetizing amp-turns/pair of poles =
• Demagnetizing amp - turns/pole =
• per pole =
Cross-magnetizing AT per pole
• Total armature-conductors/pole for both cross and
demagnetizing = Z / P
• Cross-magnetizing conductors/pole =
•Cross-magnetizing amp-turns/pole =
per pole =

51
 Cont…
Note (i) For neutralizing the demagnetizing effect of
armature-reaction, an extra number of turns may be put
on each pole.
 No. of extra turns/pole = for shunt generator
 No. of extra turns/pole = for series generator
(ii) If lead angle is given in electrical degrees, it should be
converted into mechanical degrees by
ϴm =

52
 EMF EQUATION OF DC GENERATOR

Let ϕ= flux per pole in Weber,

Z = total number of armature conductors
P = Number of poles
a = number of parallel paths in armature
N= armature rotation in revolutions per minute (rpm)
Eg = emf generated in one of the parallel path
Average e.m.f generated/ conductor =
Flux cut/ conductor in one revolution =
No. of revolutions / Second =
Therefore, time for one revolution,

53
 Cont…
• Hence according to Faraday’s law s of Electromagnetic
Induction

∴ emf generated / path =

• E.M.F. generated / conductor =

For wave winding

• Number of parallel current path a = 2

∴ emf generated / path =

• Number of conductors (in series) in one path= Z/2

54
 Cont…
For lap winding
• Number of parallel current path a = P

∴ emf generated / path =

• Number of conductors (in series) in one path = Z/P

 In general, the voltage in any real machine will depend on:

1. The flux in the machine
2. The speed of rotation
3. A constant representing the construction of the
machine.

55
 Characteristics of DC Generator
 Speed of generator is fixed by the prime
mover.
 For general-purpose operation, the prime mover
is equipped with a speed governor so that the
speed of the generator is practically constant.
 Under such condition, the generator performance
deals primarily with the relation between
excitation, terminal voltage and load.
 These relations can be exhibited graphically by
means of curves known as generator
characteristics. 56
 Cont…

 The three most important characteristics or curves of a

D.C. generator are
1. No-load Saturation Characteristic (E0/If)
 It is also known as Magnetic Characteristic or Open-
circuit Characteristic (O.C.C.).
 It shows the relation between the no-load generated
e.m.f. in armature (E0)and If at a given fixed speed.
 It is just the magnetization curve for the material of the
electromagnets.
 Its shape is practically the same for all generators
whether separately-excited or self-excited
57
 Cont..
• The O.C.C. for a d.c. generator is determined as follows.
• The field winding of d.c. generator (series or shunt) is
disconnected from the machine and is separately excited
from an external d.c. source as shown in Fig.4.26 (ii).
• The generator is run at fixed speed. (If) is increased from
zero in steps and the corresponding values of generated
e.m.f. (E0) read off on a voltmeter connected across the
armature terminals.
• On plotting the relation between E0 and If, we get the open
circuit characteristic as shown in Fig.4.26 (i). below
58
Cont…

Figure 4.26

59
 The following points may be noted from O.C.C.
1. When If is zero, there is some generated e.m.f. OA. This
is due to the residual magnetism in the field poles.
2. Over a fairly wide range of If (up to point B in the curve),
the curve is linear, because in this range, reluctance of
iron is negligible as compared with that of air gap.
 The air gap reluctance is constant and hence linear
relationship.
3. After point B on the curve, the reluctance of iron also
comes into picture.
 Consequently, the curve deviates from linear relationship.
4. After point C on the curve, the magnetic saturation of
poles begins and E0 tends to level off. 60
 2. Internal and External Characteristics

 Internal characteristics gives the relation between the

e.m.f. E actually induces in the armature at load and the
armature current Ia.
 The e.m.f E will be less than E0 due to the effects of armature
reaction. Therefore, this curve will lie below the O.C.C
3.External characteristics:
 also referred to as performance characteristic or sometimes
voltage-regulating curve
 It gives the relation between terminal voltage V across the
load and the load current I flowing in the external load.
 V will be less than E due to voltage drop in the armature.
 Therefore, this curve will lie below the internal characteristic.
61
 Cont…
 As the load current increases, the terminal voltage falls due
to two reasons:
1. The armature reaction weakens the main flux so that actual
e.m.f (E) generated on load is less than the generated
e.m.f (E0) on no load.
2. There is voltage drop across armature resistance ( IaRa). Due
to these reasons, the external characteristic is a drooping
curve

Figure 4.27

62
 Cont…
 In the absence of armature reaction and armature drop, the
generated e.m.f. would have been E0 (curve 1) which gives the
o.c.c curve
 The internal characteristic can be determined from external
characteristic by adding IaRa drop to the external
characteristic.
 Curve 2 is the internal characteristic of the generator and
should obviously lie above the external characteristic.
 The values of V are obtained by subtracting IaRa from
corresponding values of E, (i.e. V= E - IaRa)
 Due to this reason the external characteristic is below the
internal characteristic curve shown by (curve 3). 63
 Voltage Regulation
 It is the change in terminal voltage of a generator with the
change in load current when it is running at a constant
speed.
 If the change in voltage between no-load and full load is
small, then the generator is said to have good regulation but
if the change in voltage is large, then it has poor regulation
 The voltage regulation is usually expressed as a percentage
of the voltage at full-load.

Where: VNL = Terminal voltage of generator at No load

VFL = Terminal voltage of generator at full load
64
 Parallel Operation of D.C. Generators

 In a d.c. power plant, power is usually supplied from

several generators of small ratings connected in
parallel instead of from one large generator .
 This is due to the following reasons
- Continuity of service
- Efficiency
- Maintenance and repair
- Increasing plant capacity
- Non-availability of single large unit

65
 Cont…

Continuity of service: if we use a single unit, in the event

of fault of generator, the entire station will be shutdown.
 But if we use two or more small units operating in parallel
this problem will be solved.
Efficiency: the load on the power plant fluctuates b/n its peak
value & its minimum value.
 Since generator operate most efficiently when delivering
full load. It is economical to use a single small unit when
the load is light.
 Then as the load demand increases, a larger generator can
be substituted for the smaller one or another smaller unit
can be connected to run in parallel with the one in
operation.
66
 Cont…

Maintenance and repair: during Maintenance and

repair the generator is at rest w/c means that there
must be another generator to take care of the load.
Increasing plant capacity: it becomes easy to add
other generators for parallel operation as the load
demand increases

67
 Connecting Shunt Generators in Parallel
 The generators in a power plant are connected in parallel
through bus-bars.
 The bus-bars are heavy thick copper bars and they act as
+ve and -ve terminals.
 The positive terminals of the generators are connected to
the +ve side of bus-bars and negative terminals to the -ve
side of bus-bars.
 Fig 4.28 Shows shunt generator 1 connected to the bus-bars
and supplying load.
 When the load on the power plant increases beyond the
capacity of this generator, the second shunt generator 2 is
connected in parallel with the first to meet the increased
load demand
68
 Cont…
Procedure for paralleling generator 2 with generator 1

Figure 4.28
69
 Cont…
 The prime mover of G-2 is brought up to the rated speed.
 Now switch S4 in the field circuit of G-2 is closed.
 Next circuit breaker CB-2 is closed and the excitation of G-
2 is adjusted till it generates voltage equal to the bus-bars or
G-1 voltage, indicated by voltmeter V2.
 Now G-2 is ready to be paralleled with G-1 then the main
switch S3 is closed.
 However, under these condition, G-2 is not taking any
load, because its generated voltage (E) is the same as bus-
bar voltage (V) and there is no flow of current b/n two
points at the same potential.
 The generator is said to be “Floating” on the bus-bar

70
 Cont…
 To deliver any current, the voltage (E) generated by G-2
should be greater than the bus-bars voltage V,
 In that case, current supplied by G-2 is, I = (E - V)/Ra
 The generated voltage (E) of G-2 is increased by
increasing its field excitation or(If) till it takes its proper
share of load.
 The load may be shifted from one shunt generator to
another merely by adjusting the field excitation.
 Thus if G-1 is to be shut down, the whole load can be
shifted onto G-2 provided it has the capacity to supply that
load.

71
 Load Sharing

 Because of their slightly drooping voltage

characteristics, shunt generators are most suited for
stable parallel operation and
 The load sharing between shunt generators in parallel
can be easily regulated
 The load may be shifted from one generator to another
merely by adjusting the field excitation.

where:- E1, E2 = no-load voltages of the two generators

R1, R2 = their armature resistances
V = common terminal voltage (Bus-bars
voltage) 72
 Cont…
 Thus output current of the two generators depends
upon the values of generated voltage E1 and E2 .
 The values of E1 and E2 may be changed by field
rheostats.
 The common terminal voltage V (or bus-bars voltage)
will depend upon
-The voltage of individual generators (E1 and E2 )
- The total load current supplied

73
 D.C. Motors

 DC motor is an electrical machine that converts E.E to M.E

 It operates on the principle of electromagnetic induction.
 There are similarities between dc generators and dc motors.
 Both machines have rotating and stationary parts.
 Both machines use commutators and brushes to complete
their circuits.
 The windings are supplied from an external DC source.
 The current flow in the windings produce magnetic field
around the respective windings.
 The two magnetic fields interact and develop a torque
which tends to rotate the armature.

74
 Principle of Operation
• When current flows through a
conductor, magnetic field is
set up about the conductor.
• If the conductor is placed in a
magnetic field, the two fields
interact and develop force
• The direction of the force is
given by Fleming's left hand
rule (motor rule) and hence
Figure .4.29
the conductor moves in the
direction of force.

75
 Cont…
• Magnitude of the force experienced in the conductor is
given by
Where: B- is the field strength,
-is the current flowing through the conductor
-is the length of conductor in meters.
 In an actual DC motor, several coils are wound on the
rotor, all of which experience force, resulting in rotation.
 The greater the current in the wire, or the greater the
magnetic field, the faster the wire moves because of the
greater turning force (Torque) created.

76
 Cont…
 When the motor is connected to a dc Source, a dc current
passes through the brushes and commutator to the
armature winding.
 While it passes through the commutator it is converted in
to a.c.
 so that the group of conductors under successive field
poles carries currents in the opposite directions.
 Since the armature conductors are rotating in the
magnetic field, and cut the magnetic flux and therefore
e.m.f. is induced in them as shown in figure 4.30 below.
 The direction of this e.m.f is in opposition to the applied
voltage that causes current flow through the armature
77
 Cont…

Figure 4.30Induced voltage in the armature winding of DC motor

 Because of its opposing direction it is referred to as a
counter-emf or back emf (Eb).
 The value of current flowing through the armature is
dependent upon the difference between the applied
voltage and this counter-e.m.f. i.e.

78
 Cont…
 The current due to this Eb tends to oppose the very
cause for its production according to Lenz’s law.
 It results in the rotor slowing down.
 The applied voltage must be large enough to overcome
this back e.m.f. and to send current through the armature
resistance.
 Thus we see that an e.m.f. is generated in both generator
and motor, therefore, there is a generator action in both
motor and generator operation.

79
 Cont…
• However in G- operation Eg produces the armature current, where
as in M-operation Eb opposes the supply voltage.
• Since back e.m.f. is induced due to the generator action, the magnitude
is given by

 In generator theory, the movement of a conductor in a magnetic field

induces voltage that causes current flow.
 In motors, current from an external source is passed through the
conductor while it is in a magnetic field and causes rotation of the rotor.

80
 Voltage and Torque developed in a DC Motor
Torque Developed
 The equation for torque developed in a DC motor can be
derived as follows.
 The force on one coil of wire
 Since B =/A where A is the area of the coil,
 Therefore the torque for a multi turn coil with an armature
current of Ia is: Ta = K ** Ia
Where  is the flux/pole in weber, K is a constant
depending on coil geometry and lumps all the constant
parameters (eg.length, area and distance).
Note: T is a function of F and the distance,
81
 Cont…
 Mechanical power developed in a dc motor (Pm) = EbIa
• If Ta is the torque in Nm developed by the armature of the
motor, running at N rpm, then the mechanical power
developed is the product of the machine Ta and the
mechanical speed of rotation (Wm),
Pm= Wm*Ta

However, back e.m.f

82
 Cont…
 For a particular dc motor; P, Z & a are fixed.
 Hence, the torque developed by the armature of dc motor
is proportional to the product of Ia and . i.e.
 For dc shunt motor,  is practically constant, hence the
torque developed is directly proportional to Ia, i.e.

• For dc series motor, the flux is directly proportional to

Ia hence the torque developed is directly proportion to the
square of the armature current, i.e.

83
 Cont…
 The generated voltage is given by

Eb = ZPN
60 x a
= Kam (volts)
where:
m = 2πN/60 (speed of armature in rad/sec)

Ka = the machine constant

Developed Torque, Tdev = Ka Ia (Nm)

84
 Equivalent Circuit of a motor Armature
The armature circuit is equivalent to
a source of emf Eb in series with a
resistance Ra, put across a dc supply of
V volts.
It is evident from the Figure that the
applied voltage V must be large
enough to balance both the voltage Figure 4-31

drop in armature resistance and the

back emf at all times i.e. V= Eb + IaRa,

Eb= V - IaRa

85
 Cont…
 For a constant applied voltage (V) and armature resistance:
1. The induced emf in the armature of a DC motor,
(Eb), depends upon the armature speed (N)
2. Armature current (Ia) depends upon the back emf (Eb)
• If N is high, Eb will be large and therefore Ia becomes
small.
• If the N is low, then Eb will be less and Ia will be more
resulting in development of large torque.
• Thus it is evident that Eb acts like a governor i.e it
makes a motor self-regulating so that it draws as much
current as just required.
86
Interaction of Prime-mover, DC Generator and Load

Figure 4.32

The Electromagnetic forces acting on the armature creates

Torque acting on the armature in a counter-clockwise direction
which is known as Backward torque (Tback) or developed Torque
(Tdev)
This Torque, therefore, opposes the outside driving (prime
mover) torque.
87
Interaction of the DC Motor and Mechanical Load

The torque developed by Electro-magnetic actions will rotate

the Rotor in a clockwise direction.
The friction of the machine and the mechanical load that the
motor is driving will exert a torque in counter-clockwise
direction, opposing the rotation of the motor and called Load
Torque (T load).
88
 Comparison of DC Motor and Generator

• We observe that Torque is developed in generator as well

as motor
• i.e. there is a motor action in both generator and motor,
operation. However,
• In motor operation the torque developed causes the
armature rotation, where as
• In a generator operation the torque produced opposes the
rotation of armature.
• In general,
 In every generator there is a motor (Tback opposes Tpm)
 In every motor there is a generator (Eb opposes VT)

89
 Cont…
• It is interesting to note that the same DC machine can be
used either as a motor or as a generator, by reversing the
terminal connections.

Figure 4.34 Reversibility of a DC machine

90
Power Developed in a DC Machine

91
 Losses in DC Machine

Figure 4-35
92
 Characteristics of D.C. Motor
 The three important characteristics of a d.c motor
a) Torque and Armature current characteristic (Ta/Ia) Fig b
 It is the curve between armature torque Ta and armature
current Ia of a d.c motor. It is also known as electrical
characteristic of the motor.
b) Speed and armature current characteristic (N/Ia)Fig c
• It is the curve between speed N and armature current Ia of
a d.c motor.
• It is very important characteristic as it is often the deciding
factor in the selection of the motor for a particular
application.

93
 Cont…
c) Speed and torque characteristic (N/Ta) Fig d
 It is the curve between speed N and armature torque Ta of a
d.c motor. It is also known as mechanical characteristic.
Characteristics of Shunt Motors
its connection is shown in Fig. (a)
• It is generally referred to as a constant speed motor.
• It finds in applications of requiring a relatively constant speed
under varying loads.
• The Ish is constant since the field winding is directly
connected to a constant dc supply voltage V.
Hence, the flux (ф) in a shunt motor is approximately constant.
94
 Cont…

• From expression of speed:

• Since flux is constant, so with the increase in load current
the speed slightly falls due to increase in voltage drop in
armature IaRa.
• Since IaRa at full-load is very small as compared to
applied voltage so drop in speed from no load to full
load is very small and for all practical purposes the
shunt motor is taken as a constant speed motor.
• From the expression for the torque of a dc motor.
• i.e.
95
 Cont…

• Since in case of dc shunt motors the flux is constant

therefore torque increase with the increase in armture
current following linear law i.e. torque-armature current
characteristics is a straight line passing through the origin.

Figure 4.36 Characteristics of Shunt Motors

96
 Characteristic of DC Series motor

• One of the main advantages of series motor is its ability to

develop a large starting torque under load conditions,
That is, T ɤ ϕ.
• From fig 4.37 (a) it is evident that series motor develops
large starting torque to accelerate the heavy masses.
Hence it is used where large starting torque is required
such as in electric railways, electric trains and electric
vehicle
• Up to saturation point flux is proportional to field
current and hence to the armature current because Ia= Iser

97
 Cont…
• Therefore on light load T α Ia2 and hence curve drawn
between T and Ia up to saturation point is a parabola.
• After saturation point  is almost independent of field
current and so T α Ia. Thus, the curve, becomes a straight
line
Figure 4.37(b) shows on no load the speed is dangerously
high, which result in heavy centrifugal force that damage
the motor.
• With increased Ia, ф also increases. Hence N α 1/Ia ,
• Thus, as Ia increase, the N decreases. That is why, series
motors are never started on no load.
• Note: Series DC motor is a variable speed motor.
98
 Cont…
• As the N of the motor increases and also the Eb builds,
the line current decreases and also the torque reduce.
• From fig.4.37 (c) we can see that in series wound motor
as the T increases the N decreases, hence it is most
suited for the service where the motor is directly coupled
to the load, such as fans whose speed fails with increase
in torque.

Figure 4.37 Characteristics of DC Series Motor

99
 Speed Control of DC Motor
 Many applications require the speed of a motor to
be varied over a wide range.
 One of the most attractive features of DC motors
in comparison with AC motors is the ease with
which their speed can be varied.
 We know that the back emf for a separately
excited DC motor:- Eb= K Ф N = VT - Ia Ra
 Rearranging the terms
Speed(N) = (VT - Ia Ra)/K Ф -------1

100
 Cont.…
 From equation(1), it is evident that the speed can be varied by using

any of the following methods

Armature voltage control (By varying VT)
 Field Control (By Varying Ф)
 Armature resistance control (By varying Ra)
• Speed control of Separately excited DC motors
Armature voltage control
 This method is usually applicable to separately excited DC motors.

 In this method of speed control, Ra and Ф are kept constant.

 In normal operation, the drop across Ra is small compared to Eb and

therefore: Eb=VT 101

 Cont.…

Since, Eb = K Ф N, and Eb=VT

Angular speed can be expressed as:
N=VT/KФ ----2, From equation (2),
 If Ф is kept constant, the N changes linearly with VT.
 As VT is increased, the N increases and vice versa.
 The relationship between N and applied voltage is shown
in figure (4.38) below.
 This method provides smooth variation of speed

Figure 4.38 : Variation of speed with applied voltage 102

 SPEED CONTROL OF SHUNT DC MOTORS
a) Variation of Flux or Field control Method:
We know that: N α 1/Ф
Assuming magnetic linearity, Ф α Ish or N α 1/Ish
i.e., Speed can be controlled by varying field current(Ish)
 The flux of dc motor can be changed by changing Ish with
the help of an adjustable shunt rheostat in the field circuit
as shown in figure 4-39 (a) below
 By increasing the value of total field resistance, Ish can
be reduced, and therefore N can be increased.
103
 Cont.…

Since Ish is relatively small, shunt field rheostat

has to carry only a small current, which means
I2R loss is small.
So this method is, therefore, very efficient.

Figure 4-39 (a) speed control of shunt motor by varying field flux
104
 b) Armature or Rheostat Control Method
• This method is used when speeds below the no-
load speed are required.
• As the supply voltage is normally constant, the
voltage across the armature is varied by inserting a
variable rheostat in series with the armature circuit
as shown in fig. 4.39 (b) below.
• As controller resistance is increased; Voltage
across the armature is decreased, thereby
decreasing the armature speed.

105
 Cont…
• From the speed/armature current characteristics, it
is seen that the greater the resistance in the
armature circuit, greater is the fall in speed.

Figure 4.39 (b) Circuit arrangement for Rheostat Control

106
 SPEED CONTROL OF DC SERIES MOTOR

Flux Control Method: Variation in the flux of a

Series motor can be brought about in any one of
the following ways:
i) Field Diverters: The series winding are
shunted by a variable resistance knows as field
diverter as shown in fig. 4.40 (a).
 Any desired amount of current can be passed
through the diverter by adjusting its resistance.
Hence the flux can be decreased, consequently,
the speed of the motor increased.
107
 ii) Armature Diverter

• A diverter across the armature can be used for

giving speeds lower than the normal speed. For a

armature diverter, then 𝛷 must increase ( ∴T ɤ ϕ).

given constant load torque, if Ia is reduced due to

• This results an increase in current taken from the

supply which increases the flux) and a fall in
speed (N α 1/Ф)
• The variations in N can be controlled by varying
the diverter resistance as shown in fig 4.40(b).

108
 iii) Tapped Field Control
 Employed in electric traction as shown in fig 4-40
(c).The number of series field turns in the circuit can be
changed at will as shown.
 With full field, the motor runs at its minimum speed,
which can be raised in steps by cutting out some of the
series turns

Figure 4.40 Circuit arrangement for Flux control method of Series Dc motor
109
2. Variable Resistance in series with Motor

• By increasing the resistance in series with

armature, the voltage applied across the armature
terminals can be decreased.
• With reduced voltage across the armature, the
speed is reduced.
• However, it will be noted that since full motor
current passes through this resistance, there is a
considerable loss of power in it.

110
 Cont…

Figure 4.41Circuit arrangement for variable resistance control method

of Series Dc motor

111
 DC MOTOR STARTING
• If dc motor is directly connected to a dc power supply,
the starting current will be dangerously high.
• The current drawn by the motor armature is
• At stand still Eb=0, therefore,
Since Ra is very small, the starting current drawn by
the supply voltage is very large.
• This excessive starting current will damage the motor
• Thus, the starting current can be reduced by
1. Reducing VT at starting:- requires a variable supply
voltage
2. Increasing resistance in the armature circuit:- an
additional resistance Rex can be connected in 112the
 O U
K Y
A N
T H
113