Understanding Computers: Today and Tomorrow, 13th Edition

Chapter 2:
The System Unit:
Processing and Memory
 Learning Objectives

1. Understand how data and programs are represented to

a computer and be able to identify a few of the coding
systems used to accomplish this.
2. Explain the functions of the hardware components
commonly found inside the system unit, such as the
CPU, memory, buses, and expansion cards.
3. Describe how new peripheral devices or other
hardware can be added to a computer.
4. Understand how the computer system’s CPU and
memory components process program instructions and
data.
5. Name and evaluate several strategies that can be used
today for speeding up the operations of a computer.
6. List some technologies that may be used in the future
computers.
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 Overview

• This chapter covers:

– How computers represent data and program
instructions
– How the CPU, memory, and other components
located inside the system unit are arranged, as well
as the characteristics of the components
– How the CPU performs processing tasks
– Strategies to speed up a computer today and to
create faster computers in the future

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 Data and Program Representation

• In order to be understood by a computer, data and

programs need to be represented appropriately
• Coding systems: Used to represent data and programs
in a manner understood by the computer
• Digital computers: Can only understand two states, off
and on (0 and 1)
• Digital data representation:
The process of representing
data in digital form so it can be
understood by a computer

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 Digital Data Representation

• Bit: The smallest unit of data that

a binary computer can recognize
(a single 1 or 0)
• Byte = 8 bits
• Byte terminology used to
express the size of documents
and other files, programs, etc.
• Prefixes are often used to
express larger quantities of
bytes: kilobyte (KB), megabyte
(MB), gigabyte (GB), terabyte
(TB), etc.

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 The Binary Numbering System

• Numbering system: A way of representing numbers

• Decimal numbering system
– Uses 10 symbols (0-9)
• Binary numbering system
– Uses only two symbols (1 and 0) to represent all
possible numbers
• In both systems, the position of the digits determines the
power to which the base number (such as 10 or 2) is
raised

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 The Binary Numbering System

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 Coding Systems for Text-Based Data

• ASCII and EBCDIC

– ASCII (American Standard Code
for Information Interchange):
coding system traditionally used
with personal computers
– EBCDIC (Extended Binary-Coded
Decimal Interchange Code):
developed by IBM, primarily for
mainframe use

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 Coding Systems for Text-Based Data

• Unicode: newer code (32 bits

per character is common);
universal coding standard
designed to represent text-
based data written in any
ancient or modern language
• Replacing ASCII as the
primary text-coding
system

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 Coding Systems for Other
Types of Data

• Graphics (still images

such as photos or
drawings)
– Bitmapped images:
A variety of bit
depths are possible
(4, 8, 24 bits)
• More bits = more
colors

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 Coding Systems for Other
Types of Data

• Audio data: Must be in digital form in order to be stored

on or processed by a computer
– Often compressed when sent over the Internet
• MP3 files
• Video data: Displayed using a collection of frames, each
frame contains a still image
– Amount of data can be substantial, but can be
compressed

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 Representing Programs: Machine Language

• Machine language: Binary-based language for

representing computer programs the computer can
execute directly
– Early programs were written in machine language.
– Today’s programs still need to be translated into
machine language in order to be understood by the
computer
• Most programs are written in other programming
languages
– Language translators are used to translate the
programs into machine language

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 Quick Quiz

1. Another way to say “one million bytes” is

a. one kilobyte
b. one gigabyte
c. one megabyte
2. True or False: MP3 files are stored using 0s and 1s.
3. The _____________ numbering system is used by
computers to perform mathematical computations.
Answers:
1) c; 2) True; 3) binary

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 Inside the System Unit

• System unit: The main case of a computer

– Houses the processing hardware for a computer
– Also contains storage devices, the power supply, and
cooling fans
– Houses the CPU, memory, interfaces to connect to
peripheral devices (printers, etc), and other
components such as CD/DVD drives
– With a desktop computer, usually looks like a
rectangular box

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 Inside the System Unit

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 The Motherboard

• Computer chip: A very small pieces of silicon or other

semi-conducting material onto which integrated
circuits are embedded
• Circuit board: A thin board containing computer chips
and other electronic components
• Motherboard or system board: The main circuit board
inside the system unit
– All devices must connect to the motherboard
– External devices (monitors, keyboards, mice,
printers) typically connect by plugging into a port
exposed through the exterior of the system unit
– Wireless devices connect through a transceiver or
wireless networking technology (like Bluetooth)
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 The CPU

• Central processing unit (CPU): circuitry and components

packaged together and connected directly to the
motherboard
– Does the vast majority of processing for a computer
– Also called a processor; called a microprocessor when
talking about personal computer
• Dual-core CPU: Contains the processing components
(cores) of two separate processors on a single CPU
• Quad-core CPU: Contains 4 cores
• Typically different CPUs for desktop computers, portable
computers, servers, mobile devices, consumer devices, etc.
• Often made by Intel or AMD

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 The CPU

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 The CPU

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 Processing Speed

• CPU clock speed: One measurement of processing

speed
– Measured in megahertz (MHz) or gigahertz (GHz)
– Higher CPU clock speed = more instructions
processed per second
• Alternate measure of processing speed is the number of
instructions a CPU can process per second
– Megaflops, gigaflops, teraflops
• Other factors (CPU architecture, memory, bus speed,
amount of RAM, etc.) also affect the overall processing
speed of a computer
• Benchmark tests: Can be used to evaluate overall
processing speed
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 Word Size and Cache Memory

• Word size: The amount of data that a CPU can

manipulate at one time
– Typically 32 or 64 bits
• Cache memory: Special group of very fast memory chips
located on or close to the CPU
– Level 1 is fastest, then Level 2, then Level 3
– More cache memory typically means faster
processing
– Usually internal cache (built into the CPU)
– Often some cache dedicated to each core; may also
have some shared cache accessible by any core

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 Bus Width, Bus Speed, and Bandwidth

• Bus: An electronic path over

which data can travel
• Bus width: The number of
wires in the bus over which
data can travel
• Bus width and speed
determine the throughput (or
bandwidth) of the bus
– The amount of data that
can be transferred by the
bus in a given time period

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 Memory

• Memory refers to chip based storage

• RAM (random access memory): Computer’s main
memory
– Consists of chips arrange on a circuit board called a
memory module plugged into the motherboard
– Stores essential parts of operating system, programs, and
data the computer is currently using
– Adequate RAM is needed to run programs
– Volatile: Contents of RAM is lost when the computer is
shut off
– Most personal computers use SD-RAM
– MRAM and PRAM: non-volatile RAM under development

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 Memory

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 Memory

• Registers: High-speed memory built into the CPU;

used by the CPU
• ROM (read-only memory): Non-volatile chips located
on the motherboard into which data or programs have
been permanently stored
– Retrieved by the computer when needed
– Being replaced with flash memory for firmware
• Flash memory: Type of nonvolatile memory that can
be erased and reprogrammed
– Some flash memory chips are used by the
computer
– Flash memory chips are also used in flash memory
storage media (sticks, cards, and drives)
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 Fans, Heat Sinks, and
Other Cooling Components

• Heat: A continuing problem for CPU and computer

manufacturers
• Fans: Used on most personal computers
• Heat sinks: Small components typically made out of
aluminum with fins that help to dissipate heat
• Water cooling systems: Cool the computer with liquid-
filed tubes
• Notebook cooling stands
• Other cooling methods (such as ion pump cooling
systems) are under development

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 Fans, Heat Sinks, and
Other Cooling Components

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 Expansion Slots, Expansion Cards, and
ExpressCards

• Expansion slot: A location on the motherboard into which

expansion cards are inserted
• Expansion card: A circuit board used to add additional
functionality or to attach a peripheral device
• ExpressCard modules:
Designed for
notebook computer
expansion

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 Buses

• Bus: An electronic path within a computer over which

data travels
– Expansion bus: Connects the CPU to peripheral
(typically input and output) devices
– Memory bus: connects CPU directly to RAM
– Frontside bus: connects CPU to I/O bridge
– PCI and PCI Express (PCIe) bus
– Universal Serial Bus (USB)
– FireWire/IEEE 1394 bus

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 Buses

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 Ports and Connectors

• Port: A connector on the exterior of a computer’s

system unit to which a device may be attached
– Monitor (VGA, – SCSI
DVI, HDMI) – MIDI
– Network – IrDA
– Modem – Flash memory card
– USB slots
– FireWire – Game
– Keyboard – Audio
– eSATA

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 Ports and Connectors

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 Ports and Connectors

• Many desktop computers come with a variety of ports on

the front of the system unit for easy access
• A wired or wireless hub can connect many devices to a
single USB or FireWire port

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 Ports and Connectors

• Notebook and netbook computers have ports similar to

desktop computers, but often not as many
• UMPCs and mobile devices typically have less ports
– An SD slot is common for both memory cards
and to connect peripheral devices

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 Quick Quiz

1. Which type of memory is erased when the power

goes out?
a. ROM
b. RAM
c. flash memory
2. True or False: The CPU can also be called the
motherboard.
3. A(n) electronic path within a computer over which
data travels is called a(n) _____________.
Answers:
1) b; 2) False; 3) bus

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 How the CPU Works

• CPU: Consists of a variety of circuitry and components

packaged together
– Transistor: Key element of the microprocessor
• Made of semi-conductor material that acts like a
switch controlling the flow of electrons inside a chip
• Today’s CPUs contain hundreds of millions of transistors;
the number doubles about every 18 months (Moore’s
Law)

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 Typical CPU Components

• Arithmetic/Logic Unit (ALU): Performs integer arithmetic

and logical operations
• Floating Point Unit (FPU): Performs decimal arithmetic
• Control unit: Coordinates and controls activities
• Prefetch unit: Tries to fetch data and instructions before
they are needed from cache or RAM
• Decode unit: Translates instructions so they are
understood by the control unit, ALU, and FPU
• Internal cache and registers: Store data and instructions
needed by the CPU
• Bus interface unit: Allows the core to communicate with
other CPU components
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 Typical CPU Components

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 The System Clock and the Machine Cycle

• System clock: Timing mechanism within the computer

system that synchronizes the computer’s operations
– Each signal is a cycle
– Number of cycles per second = hertz (Hz)
– Many PC system clocks run at 200 MHz
– Computers can run at a multiple or fraction of the
system clock
• For instance, with a CPU clock speed of 2 GHz,
the CPU clock “ticks” 10 times during each system
clock tick
– During each CPU clock tick, one or more pieces of
microcode are processed

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 The System Clock and the Machine Cycle

• Machine cycle: The series of operations involved in the

execution of a single machine level instruction
– Fetch: The program instruction is fetched
– Decode: The instructions are decoded so the control
unit, ALU, and FPU can understand them
– Execute: The instructions are
carried out
– Store: The original data or the
result from the ALU or FPU
execution is stored in the CPU’s
registers

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 Making Computers Faster and Better Now
and in the Future
• Improving performance today
– Add more memory
– Perform system maintenance
• Uninstall programs properly
• Consider placing large files on external storage
devices
• Delete temporary files
• Error check and defragment
• Scan for viruses and spyware
• Clean out dust once or twice a year
– Buy a larger or second hard drive
– Upgrade your Internet connection
– Upgrade your video graphics card
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 Making Computers Faster and Better Now
and in the Future
• Strategies for faster and better
computers
– Improved architecture: Smaller
components, faster bus speeds,
multiple CPU cores, etc.
– Improved materials: New backing
materials, flexible circuits, etc.
– Pipelining: Allows multiple
instructions to be processed at one
time
– Multiprocessing and parallel
processing: Use multiple
processors to speed up processing

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 Pipelining

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 Future Trends

• Nanotechnology: The science of creating tiny

computers and components less than 100 nanometers
in size
• Carbon nanotubes used in many products today
• Nanoparticles and nanosensors
• Future applications may be
built by working at the
individual atomic and
molecular levels

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 Future Trends

• Quantum computing: Applies the

principles of quantum physics and
quantum mechanics to computers
– Utilizes atoms or nuclei working
together as quantum bits (qubits)
– Qubits function simultaneously as
the computer’s processor and
memory and can represent more
than two states
– Expected to be used for
specialized applications, such as
encryption and code breaking

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 Future Trends

• Optical computer: Uses light, such as from laser beams

or infrared beams, to perform digital computations
– Opto-electronic computers use both optical and
electronic components
• Silicon photonics: The process of making optical devices
using silicon manufacturing techniques
– Silicon based light sensor
• Terascale computing: The ability to process one trillion
floating-point operations per second
– Expected to be needed for future applications
• 3D chips: Contain transistors that are layered to cut
down on the surface area required

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 Quick Quiz

1. Optical computers use which of the following to

transmit and process data?
a. Liquid
b. Light
c. Silicon
2. True or False: If your computer is running slowly,
adding more memory might speed it up.
3. A quantum bit is known as a(n)
__________________.
Answers:
1) b; 2) True; 3) qubit

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 Summary

• Data and Program Representation

• Inside the System Unit
• How the CPU Works
• Making Computers Faster and Better Now and In the
Future

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