Cellular

Respiration:
General Biology I (Grade 12 - Science,
Technology, Engineering and Mathematics
What is cellular respiration?
 is the process that releases energy by breaking
down glucose and other food molecules in the
presence of oxygen.
What is cellular respiration?
 Carbohydrates are digested into simple sugars (glucose),
proteins into amino acids, and fats into fatty acids. These
digested foods are then absorbed by the cells in the
walls of the small intestine, circulated to the different
parts of the body by the blood, and becomes a part of
every single cell of the body. But the energy stored in
every molecule of these nutrients that entered a
particular cell cannot be used as a fuel by the cell to
perform its activities. First, the stored energy must be
converted into adenosine triphosphate or ATP by a series
of chemical reactions through cellular respiration. Aside
from ATP, carbon dioxide and water are also produced in
Types of cellular respiration:
1. AEROBIC RESPIRATION 2. ANAEROBIC
 involves the use of RESPIRATION
oxygen and a large
number of ATP is  a chemical process in
generated in addition to which energy is
water and carbon produced without the
dioxide as by products. It use of oxygen.
is a characteristic of
eukaryotic cells when
they have enough
oxygen and most of it
occurs in the
mitochondria.
CELLULAR RESPIRATION
Cellular respiration in living things takes place in
three stages:
● GLYCOLYSIS
● KREB’s CYCLE
● ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN

Each of the stages captures some of the chemical

energy available in food molecules and uses them to
produce ATP.
 CELLULAR RESPIRATION
 Cellular respiration occurs in the cell specifically located
at the cytoplasm and the mitochondria.
 When organic compounds like glucose enter the cell, the
enzymes in the cytoplasm will break it down to a
compound that will enter the mitochondria, this process
is called Glycolysis.
 After Glycolysis, the product compound will be converted
for it to be used in the Krebs Cycle.
 After the processes of Glycolysis and Krebs Cycle all the
high energy ions and molecules will be moved over to
the inter-membrane of the mitochondria for the energy
molecule and ions be converted into ATP via Electron
Major Stages of
Aerobic
Respiration
 0
1
GLYCOLYSIS
 It is a series of reactions that extract energy from
glucose by splitting it into 2 three-carbon molecules
called pyruvate.
 GLYCOLYSIS
 It takes place in the cytoplasm of a cell, and it can be
broken down into two main phases:
 ENERGY-REQUIRING PHASE
 ENERGY-RELEASING PHASE
 In organisms either performing aerobic or anaerobic
cellular respiration, glycolysis is the first stage of this
process.
 This stage of cellular respiration doesn’t require oxygen,
and many anaerobic organisms also have this pathway.
 In this phase, the starting molecule of glucose gets
rearranged, and two phosphate groups are attached to
it.
 GLYCOLYSIS
 ENERGY-REQUIRING PHASE
- Allowing glucose to split in half and form two
phosphate-bearing three-carbon sugars.
 GLYCOLYSIS
 ENERGY-RELEASING PHASE
- In this phase, each three-carbon sugar is converted
into another three-carbon molecule, pyruvate,
through a series of reactions.
- In these reactions, two ATP molecules and one
NADH molecule are made.
- Since this phase takes place twice, once for each of
the two therefore there will be 4 ATP and 2 NADH.
 GLYCOLYSIS
 ENERGY-RELEASING PHASE
 GLYCOLYSIS
 Each reaction in glycolysis is catalyzed by its own
enzyme. The most important enzymes for regulation of
glycolysis is phosphofructokinase, which catalyzes
formation of the unstable, two-phosphate sugar
molecule, fructose-1,6-biphosphate.
 Phosphofructokinase speeds up or slows down
glycolysis in response to the energy needs of the cell.
 Overall, glycolysis converts one six-carbon molecule of
glucose into two three-carbon molecules of pyruvate.
 The net products of this process are two molecules ATP
produced – 2 ATP used up.
 STEPS IN GLYCOLYSIS
STEP 1: PHOSPHORYLATION

 A phosphate group is transferred from ATP to

glucose, making glucose-6-phosphate and ADP.
 Glucose-6-phosphate is more reactive than
glucose, and the addition of the phosphate also
traps glucose inside the cell since glucose with a
phosphate can’t readily cross the membrane.
 Enzyme - hexokinase with Mg2+.
GLYCOLYSIS
 STEPS IN GLYCOLYSIS
STEP 2:
 Glucose-6-phosphate is converted into its isomer,
so it will become fructose-6-phosphate.
 Enzyme responsible for this is phosphoglucose
isomerase.
STEP 3:
 a phosphate group is transferred from ATP to
fructose-6-phosphate, producing fructose-1,6-
biphosphate.
 This step is catalysed by the enzyme
phosphofructokinase (with Mg2+), which can be
GLYCOLYSIS
 STEPS IN GLYCOLYSIS
STEP 4:

 Fructose-1, 6-biphosphate will split into two three-

carbon sugars: dihydroxyacetone phosphate or
DHAP and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate or G3P.
 They are isomers of each other, but one G3P can
directly continue through the next steps of
glycolysis.
 Enzyme – fructose biphosphate aldolase.
GLYCOLYSIS
 STEPS IN GLYCOLYSIS
STEP 5:
 The Dihydroxyacetone phosphate or DHAP will
be converted into glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate
or G3P through the enzyme triosephosphate
isomerase.

STEP 6:
 The G3P, one of the three-carbon sugars
formed in the initial phase, loses two electrons
and two protons, reducing NAD+ to NADH and
producing H+.
 STEPS IN GLYCOLYSIS
STEP 6:
 The G3P, one of the three-carbon sugars
formed in the initial phase, loses two electrons
and two protons, reducing NAD+ to NADH and
producing H+.
 This reaction releases energy, which is used to
attach another phosphate to the sugar, forming 1,3-
biphosphoglycerate.
 Enzyme – glyceraldehyde phosphate
dehydrogenase.
 GLYCOLYSIS
 ENERGY-RELEASING PHASE
 STEPS IN GLYCOLYSIS
STEP 7:
 1,3-biphosphoglycerate donates one of its
phosphate groups to ADP, making a molecule of ATP
and turning into 3-phosphoglycerate in the
process.
 2 ATP produced (pay off)
 Enzyme – phosphoglycerate kinase

STEP 8:
 3-phosphoglycerate is converted into its
isomer.

 GLYCOLYSIS
 ENERGY-RELEASING PHASE
 STEPS IN GLYCOLYSIS
STEP 9:
 2-phosphoglycerate loses a molecule of water,
becoming phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) – is an unstable
molecule, poised to lose its phosphate group in the final
step of glycolysis.
 Enzyme – Enolase with Mg2+.
STEP 10:
 PEP readily donates its phosphate group to ADP, making a
second molecule of ATP.
 2 ATP produced
 As it loses its phosphate, PEP is converted to pyruvate or
pyruvic acid, the end product of glycolysis.
 Enzyme – pyruvate kinase with Mg2+
 GLYCOLYSIS
 ENERGY-RELEASING PHASE
 GLYCOLYSIS
ATP USED (INVESTMENT)
 1 ATP is used to donate one phosphate group to
glucose to form glucose-6-phosphate.
 1 ATP is used to donate phosphate group to fructose-
6-phosphate, producing fructose-1,6-biphosphate

ATP PRODUCTION (PAY OFF)

 2 ATP produced when the two molecules of 1,3-
bisphosphoglycerate donates its phosphate group to
ADP.
 2 ATP produced when two molecules of PEP donates
its phosphate group to ADP.
 GLYCOLYSIS
REACTANTS (What we
END PRODUCTS
need)

ONE GLUCOSE 2 PYRUVATE

2 NAD+ 2 NADH

2 ATP 2 ADP

4 ADP 4 ATP
 GLYCOLYSIS
MOLECULES FORMED IN GLYCOLYSIS
ENZYME
REACTIONS
Glucose Hexokinase with Mg2+
Glucose-6-phosphate Phosphoglucose isomerase
Fructose-1,6-biphosphate Phosphofructokinase (with Mg2+)
Dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) Fructose biphosphate aldolase
Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P) Triosephosphate isomerase
Glyceraldehyde phosphate
1,3-biphosphoglycerate
dehydrogenase
3-phosphoglycerate Phosphoglycerate kinase
2-phosphoglycerate Phosphoglycerate mutase
Phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) Enolase with Mg2+
Pyruvate or Pyruvate Acid Pyruvate kinase with Mg2+
"Energy and life go hand in hand. If you stop breathing, you will
not be able to generate the energy you need for staying alive
and you’ll be dead in a few minutes. Keep breathing. Now the
oxygen in your breath is being transported to virtually every
one of the 15 trillion cells in your body, where it is used to burn
glucose in cellular respiration. You are a fantastically
energetic machine. Gram per gram, even when sitting
comfortably, you are converting 10 000 times more energy
than the sun every second."
— Nick Lane, Power
STEPS IN PYRUVATE OXIDATION
 At the end of glycolysis, we have two pyruvate molecules
that still contain lots of extractable energy.
 Pyruvate oxidation is the next step in capturing the
remaining energy in the form of ATP, although no ATP is
made directly during pyruvate oxidation.
 In eukaryotes, this step takes place in the matrix, the
innermost compartment of mitochondria. In prokaryotes, it
happens in the cytoplasm. Overall, pyruvate oxidation
converts pyruvate—a three-carbon molecule—into acetyl –
a two-carbon molecule attached to Coenzyme A (CoASH) —
producing a NADH and releasing one carbon dioxide
molecule in the process. Acetyl CoA acts as fuel for the
citric acid cycle in the next stage of cellular respiration.
 PYRUVATE OXIDATION
 Pyruvate is produced
by glycolysis in the
cytoplasm, but
pyruvate oxidation
takes place in the
mitochondrial matrix
(in eukaryotes). So,
before the chemical
reactions can begin,
pyruvate must enter
the mitochondrion,
crossing its inner
membrane and
 PYRUVATE OXIDATION
Step 1. A carboxyl group is snipped off of pyruvate
and released as a molecule of carbon dioxide,
leaving behind a two-carbon molecule.
Step 2. The two-carbon molecule from step 1 is
oxidized, and the electrons lost in the oxidation are
picked up by NAD+ to form NADH.
Step 3. The oxidized two-carbon molecule—an acetyl
group, highlighted in green—is attached to
Coenzyme A, an organic molecule derived from
vitamin B5, to form acetyl CoA. Acetyl CoA is
sometimes called a carrier molecule, and its job
here is to carry the acetyl group to the citric acid
cycle.
 PYRUVATE OXIDATION
 The steps in pyruvate are carried out by a
large enzyme complex called the pyruvate
dehydrogenase complex.
 If we consider the two pyruvates that enter
from glycolysis (for each glucose molecule),
we can summarize pyruvate oxidation as
follows:
 Two molecules of pyruvate are converted into
two molecules of acetyl CoA.
 Two carbons are released as carbon dioxide—
out of the six originally present in glucose.
 2 NADH are generated from NAD+.
 Why make acetyl CoA?
 Acetyl CoA serves as fuel for the citric
acid cycle in the next stage of cellular
respiration. The addition of CoA helps
activate the acetyl group, preparing it
to undergo the necessary reactions to
enter the citric acid cycle.
 0
2 CYCLE
KREB’s
 A series of chemical reactions in living things in
which acetic acid or a related substance is oxidized to
produce energy which is stored in ATP.
 KREB’s CYCLE
 CITRIC ACID CYCLE
- refers to the first molecule that forms during the
cycle’s reactions – citrate, or, in its protonated form
citric acid.

 TRICARBOXYLIC ACID CYCLE

– for the three carboxyl groups on its first two
intermediates.

 KREBs CYCLE
- (German-American biologist) discovered by Hans
Kreb (Nobel Prize in 1953)
LOCATION OF KREB’s CYCLE
 In eukaryotes, the
Krebs cycle takes
place in the matrix of
the mitochondria, just
like the conversion of
pyruvate to acetyl
CoA.
 In prokaryotes, these
steps both takes
place in the
cytoplasm. The cycle
is a closed loop; the
last part of the
pathway reforms the
molecule used in the
 STEPS OF KREB’s CYCLE
STEP 1: In the first step of the citric acid cycle, acetyl
CoA joins with a four-carbon molecule, oxaloacetate,
releasing the CoA group and forming a six-carbon
molecule called citrate.
 The reaction is catalysed by citrate synthase.
 This reaction also takes a water molecule as a reactant,
and it releases a SH-CoA molecule as a product.
 STEPS OF KREB’s CYCLE
STEP 2: In the second step, citrate is converted into its
isomer, isocitrate. This is actually a two-step process,
involving first the removal and then the addition of a
water molecule, which is why the citric acid cycle is
sometimes described as having nine steps—rather than
the eight listed here. This is catalysed by an enzyme
aconitase.
 STEPS OF KREB’s CYCLE
STEP 3: In the third step, isocitrate is oxidized and releases a
molecule of carbon dioxide, leaving behind a five-carbon
molecule — α-ketoglutarate.
 During this step, NAD+ is reduced to NADH.
 The enzyme catalyzing this step, isocitrate
dehydrogenase, is important in regulating the speed of the
citric acid cycle.
 A carbon dioxide molecule is released as a product.
 STEPS OF KREB’s CYCLE
STEP 4: In this case, it’s α-ketoglutarate that’s oxidized,
reducing NAD+ to NADH and releasing a molecule of carbon
dioxide in the process. The remaining four-carbon molecule
picks up Coenzyme A, forming the unstable compound
succinyl CoA.
 The enzyme catalyzing this step, α-ketoglutarate
dehydrogenase, is also important in regulation of the citric
acid cycle.
 A carbon dioxide molecule is released as a product.
 STEPS OF KREB’s CYCLE
STEP 5: CoA of succinyl CoA is replaced by a phosphate group,
which is then transferred to ADP to make ATP.
 In some cells, GDP or Guanine diphosphate is used instead of
ADP forming GTP or guanine triphosphate as a product.
 The four carbon molecule produced in this step is called
succinate.
 The reaction is catalysed by the enzyme succinyl-CoA
synthetase.
 STEPS OF KREB’s CYCLE
STEP 6: Succinate is oxidized to another four carbon molecule
called fumarate in a reaction catalysed by succinate
dehydrogenase. In this reaction, two hydrogen atoms—with
their electrons—are transferred FAD, producing FADH2​
 FAD is reduced to in this reaction.
 The enzyme that carries out this step is embedded in the inner
membrane of the mitochondrion, so to can transfer its
electrons directly into the electron transport chain.
 STEPS OF KREB’s CYCLE
STEP 7: This reaction requires water molecule as a
reactant. Fumarate is converted to malate in a
reaction catalysed by the enzyme fumarase.
 STEPS OF KREB’s CYCLE
STEP 8: In the last step of the citric acid cycle,
oxaloacetate—the starting four-carbon compound—is
regenerated by oxidation of malate.
 The starting four-carbon compound is catalysed by
malate dehydrogenase.
 This reaction reduces an NAD+ to molecule to NADH.
 PRODUCTS
Reminder: everything is always multiplied by two as,
two (2) Acetyl CoA were produced from Kreb’s
Cycle:

 4 H20 molecules were used

 2 ATP produced
 4 CO2 were released
 6 NADH were produced
 2 were produced
 Regenerated two (2) Carbon molecule oxaloacetate.