Properties of Rocks

2.1. Introduction and physical properties of rocks

Rocks are subdivided into two:

-Intact Rock : rock containing no discontinuities such as
joints and bedding.

-Rock Mass: a mass of rock interrupted by

discontinuities, and the constituent discrete blocks have
intact rock properties.

• Presence of discontinuities in rock masses often

determines the engineering character .

• When rocks are used as construction materials, intact

rock properties are considered to a great extent.
Physical (Index) Properties of
Rocks
• Porosity
• Density
• Permeability
• Hardness
• Abrasiveness
• Durability
• Wave velocity
 Porosity
• Is the proportion of the
volume of void to the total
volume of rock.
Notes:
• The porosity of sedimentary rocks decreases with
increasing depth and age.
• Effect of depth on porosity is more dominating in rocks
formed from the compaction of clay (Ex. Shale).
• Chalk is the most porous rock (50 %)
• Some Extrusive /Volcanic rocks (Ex. Pumice) possess
high porosity.
• Porosity is usually less than 2% in un-weathered
igneous rocks.
Effect of size and
shape on porosity
• Porosity and mean
grain diameter (D50)
have inverse
relationship.

• Particles of irregular
shapes tend to give
higher porosity values
than particles of
uniform shape
because their
angularity could
support looser
packing (Bell, 1980)
Density
• The mass per volume.
• The density of rocks increase with depth because
rocks at a deeper level contain more iron which is
dense.
• Density can tell about the porosity and permeability.
• Dry density=Wet density-Moisture content
• Seismic velocity increases with density.
 Hardness
• Resistance to permanent deformation.
• Affected by mineral composition and
density.
• Measured typically by Schmidt rebound
hardness number.
Procedure: point the hammer perpendicularly
to touch the surface of the rock, then release
and take direct readings (Schmidt hammer
hardness number).
Note: at least 20 tests should be done for one
rock specimen. Omit the 2 lowest and highest
readings and calculate the average hardness
value.
Correction for Schmidt hardness number
Expressed
using
Abrasivity
• Is a physical process of rubbing or scouring whereby
particles of rock are eroded away by friction.

• Is related to the mechanical properties of rock and the

content of quartz (the higher the quartz, the higher the
abrasivity.)
• Measured using LAA (Los Angeles Abrasion Test)
%
Durability
• Is the ability to resist the weathering and maintain
strength under various environmental conditions.
• Measured by the Slake Durability Test, that measures
the resistance of a rock sample to weakening and
disintegration from a standard cycle of drying and
wetting
Procedure:
1. Dry the sample in oven @ 105+ c.
2. Place the sample in the drum of the machine and
record the weight of sample plus drum as ‘A’.

3. Fit the lid in the drum and mount the drum in the
trough.
4. Fill the trough with slaking fluid (typically water c ) to
a level 20 mm below the drum axis.
5. Rotate the drum at 20 rev/min for a period of 10
min.
Durability
6. Remove the drum from the trough and remove the lid from
the drum.
7. Dry the drum +retained portion of the sample in an oven @
105+ c.
8. Record weight of drum plus retained portion of sample as
‘B’.
9. Repeat the test from 2-8 for further 10 min and record the
dry weight of drum+ retained portion of sample as ‘C’.
10. Clean the drum and record its weight as ‘D’.
Slake-durability index (%) , =
First cycle (B/A)*100% Second cycle (C/A)*100%
Wave Velocity
• P wave velocity measures the travel speed of longitudinal (primary) wave
in the material (faster but less destructive).
• S wave velocity measures the travel speed of shear (secondary) wave in
the material (slower but destructive).

• Velocity measurements can be correlated to degree of compaction of a

material.
• A well compacted rock material has high velocity as the grains are all in
good contact to transmit the waves.
• P wave velocities in air and water are 340 and 1500 m/s respectively and
are much lower than that in solid.
• Wave velocities are commonly used to assess the degree of rock mass
fracturing.
More General Physical property (index) table
 2.2. Mechanical Property
• Rock strength: is the amount of applied stress beyond
which rock fails or ruptured.
The applied stresses may be
-Compressive --giving rise to compressive strength.
-Shear – shear strength.
-Tensile – tensile strength.
Strength is a function of
-mineral composition
-grain size and sorting
-texture
-grain interlock
-kind and amount of cementation
-foliation (layering)
1. Compressive strength

• Is the capacity of the material to withstand axially

directed compressive forces.
• Can be measured using

I. Uniaxial compressive strength (Unconfined

compressive strength test)
II. Schmidt Hammer (rebound hammer) test
III. Point load test

21
i. Uniaxial compressive strength (Unconfined compressive
strength test)
• Is a laboratory test used to derive the
unconfined compressive strength (UCS) of
a rock specimen.

• The UCS stands for the maximum axial

compressive stress that a specimen can
bear under zero confining stress.

• Why it is named Uniaxial? B/c stress is

applied along the longitudinal axis.

• Sample specimen are retrieved by drill

cores and has to be representative of the
22
rock formation.
UCS test procedure
1. Take specimen with L/D in between 2-2.5.

2. Clean the two plates and place the specimen in

between in the testing chamber

3. The load should be continuously applied at a rate of

0.5 MPa/s to 1.0 MPa/s. failure must occur in
approximately 10 minutes.

4. Stress and deformation (strain) data can be recorded

through electronic system.

23
Cont’d the UCS
For instance:
A typical stress-strain diagram for UCS is presented in figure 1 for
a
specimen of basalt presented in figure 2
=44.7 MPa

• The UCS is calculated from the maximum applied load.

where is the initial cross-sectional area of specimen 24

• The modulus of elasticity :
(at 50 % maximum load)
ii. Schmidt hammer(Rebound hammer test)
Rebound hammer (Schmidt hammer)

• Non destructive testing

apparatus, whereby the
rebound of the spring is
measured after its impact
on the rock surface.

• The output of rebound

hammer is referred to as
rebound number and are
correlated with
compressive strength.
Correlation of Schmidt hardness number (rebound number with
compressive strength

27
iii. Point Load (PL) test
• The most common test in rock engineering
• Versatile: the size and shape of specimen could be varied in
wide range.
• Gives results very quickly and can be performed in the field as
well.
• Can be used to estimate the uniaxial compressive and tensile
strength.
• Depending on the shape of specimen, there are 4 different
types of point load strength tests.
i. Diametral
ii. Axial
iii. Block lump test
iv. Irregular lump test
• In all cases, at least 10 samples should be tested to obtain
reliable results
i. Diametral test

• Conducted on cylindrical samples (>0.5)

• The sample is placed in the loading device and is loaded in

perpendicular to its core axis
ii. Axial Test

• Is conducted on cylindrical samples that have a relatively

smaller length.

• The ratio between the length (D) and the Diameter (W) of
the specimen must range b/n 0.3 and 1.0.
iii. Block Lump test
• Conducted on rectangular prism samples with a preferable
dimension of 50+35 mm.
• The smallest dimension makes contact with the loading
platens

31
iv. Irregular Lump test
• Carried out on irregular blocks that resemble the geometry of a
rectangular prism.

• A cross-section of a certain block is considered as a trapezoid

with its top and bottom bases ( and ) and average width is
calculated.

• Loading process is similar to Block Lump test.

32
Valid Vs invalid Point load tests
--Based on the mode of failure
--Discard invalid tests

33
Calculations
• Initially the equivalent core diameter “” is calculated
based on the shape of the specimen.

• For diametral tests:

• For axial, block lump and irregular lump tests: , where
A is the minimum cross-sectional area A= WD

• When the PL test is completed, the raw data include

dimensions of sample and the load at failure P (kN).

• The uncorrected Point Load Strength index is given by

:

34
 Cont’d
• Size of specimen affects the mechanical properties, the
bigger the samples, the higher the probability of a existence
of weaker plane or fracture.

• Hence the value is corrected to a reference equivalent

diameter (50mm) as:
= *F
Where, F is the size correction factor given by
F=
• Uniaxial strength, UCS=C*

35
 Example: Point load test (unit has to be consistent ) UCS=?
Rock 1: Diametral point Rock 2:Axial point load test
load test
• Width W=51.6mm
• Diameter D=51 mm
• Load at failure P=3.2 kN • Diameter D=39.4 mm,
A=WD
rD 00
4𝐴
√
fo 0
ted ble • Load at failure ∗ 1 P=0.694 kN
a 2
ol s ta
r p
te vio
u 𝜋 𝑃
𝐷𝑒 =*
e
n
s i pre = Pa ) =
=C*
v
u
a l the
𝐷 𝑒 (k CS
C om
fr
𝑰 𝒔 U
Equivalent Load at Point Uniaxial
Uncorrected
core failure load compressi
Rock size point load
diameter strength ve
strength index
Rock No. index strength
W D De P Is Is50 UCS
mm mm mm kN MPa(N/mm2) MPa MPa
1. 51 51 3.2 1.23 1.24 28.83 36
C=23.25

2. 51. 39.4 50.88 0.694 0.27 0.27 5.63

C=20.88 6
2. Shear strength
Shear strength: is the resistance to an applied force that
tends to produce sliding failure.
Important parameter in design of structures in/ on
rocks.
Affected by overburden pressure, joint roughness and
presence of discontinuities.
i. Direct Shear (DST ) Test
Helps to determine the r/ships between
• Shear Strength and Normal Stress ( and ): increase in
normal stress increases the shear strength (recall .
• Shear Stress and Shear Displacement
Can be conducted on intact rock specimen or specimens
with discontinuities.

38
DST Procedure
1. The Specimen Preparation
Sampling and storage:
• Minimize damage while collecting rock samples.
• Natural moisture content should be preserved.
Size and shape:
• Minimum area of the shear plane: 1900
Encapsulation:
• Position the two halves of specimens with
encapsulating compound (cement) : to secure it with
the holding box.
2. Mounting and Setup
Shear box:
• The encapsulated specimens are mounted in the shear
box of the testing machine.
Displacement Devices: 39
• Are positioned to measure both normal and shear
displacements
 Cont’d
3. Load Application:
Seating Load: a small normal load is applied to ensure
proper contact between the specimen and the shear
box.

Normal Load: is continuously increased at a constant

rate until the desired level is reached (normal
displacement stabilized)
: simulates the overburden pressure
experienced by the rock in its natural setting.

Shear Load: Once the normal load stabilizes, the

Shear load is applied continuously at controlled rate
parallel to the plane of discontinuity.
40
4. Data acquisition and analysis
Measurements: throughout the test, normal and
shear displacements are continuously monitored
and recorded. The applied normal and shear loads
are also recorded.
5. Plots and Calculations:
• Shear Stress Vs Shear Displacement
• help for the calculation of shear strength.

a very large strain

with no increase in 

41
 ii) Shear strength from the Joint Roughness Coefficient
(JRC)
• Is a measure of the roughness of the joint
surface .
• Is determined by comparing the surface profile to
a standard chart.
• Has been used for the estimation of the peak
shear strength of rock joints since 1973 when
Barton come up with an empirical equation which
is also called JRC-JCS (Joint Compression Strength)
model .
Carpenter’s Contour Gage (Profile Gauge tool )

42
Readings are subjective and
vary depending on personal
experience of an engineer
The JRC_JCS equation for shear
strength is given by:
+b]
Where
 = shear strength of the rock
s = normal stress
JRC=the Joint Roughness Coefficient 43
JCS= the Joint Compressive
Strength= UCS from Schmidt
hammer test.
Basic friction angle b : from tilt test
and is equal to the tilt angle.

44
3. Tensile strength
• Ultimate strength in tension.
• Generally, low for rocks due to existence of
micro cracks.
• Rocks fail suddenly in tension with a small
strain.

Can be obtained from

i. Direct Tensile test: Direct Method
ii. Brazilian test: Indirect Method
iii. Flexure test: Indirect Method
i. Direct Tensile strength test: (is a
direct Method)
• Measure the force required to pull
apart the specimen of rock along its
longitudinal axis.

• Results are generally more accurate

than indirect methods.

• However, it is not commonly used due

to difficulty in sample preparation.

• For this reason, the Brazilian test is

widely used as an efficient testing
procedure. 46
ii. The Brazilian Test:(is an Indirect method)
• Conducted on disc specimens that are
cut and smoothed & then wrapped
with adhesive paper as the rock might
explode.

• Typical loading devices designed for

Brazilian tests have loading capacity of
0-100 kN. The load (P) is the load at
failure.

• The UCS loading devices can also be

used for Brazilian test as they are
capable of applying the aforementioned
rate.
• Tensile strength of the specimen :
=0.636
Where D= diameter of the specimen
At least 10 tests must be conducted or a reliable
W= the width result of the specimen
48
iii. Flexure Test: (Indirect Method)
• is also called the beam bending test
• The rock specimen is subjected to bending till
failure occurs.
• 4-point flexural loading system is used.
• The Tensile Strength (modulus of rupture) is given
by
==1.7
• Where P= the load that causes failure
L= length of specimen
D= diameter of the specimen
Young’s Modulus ‘E’
• Is a mechanical property of solid materials that
measures the tensile or compressive stiffness when
the force is applied length wise.
• Determined from the slope of stress- strain curve
obtained during compressional (UCS) or tensile
tests on rock samples.
• Varies widely with rock type.
Range of values of ‘E’ for different rocks
Poisson’s ratio ‘’
• Measures the ratio of lateral (transverse) strain to
axial strain at linearly-elastic region
• 0.15-0.4 for most rocks.
Poisson’s Raito ‘
2.3. In-situ characterization of Discontinuity
Discontinuities: are planes of weakness
where surfaces mark a change in physical or
chemical characteristics in rocks.
Different types of discontinuities include:
• Bedding Plane (Foliations)
• Joint
• Fractures
• Faults
• Folds , etc

Why do we investigate discontinuities?

 Faults Fracture

Bedding Planes Folds

55
(Opening)
1. Orientation
• Is the attitude of the discontinuities (how they are
tilted)
• Described in dip/dip direction/strike.
• Can be measured using geological compass.
• Dip Ranges from 0-.
2. Spacing
• Is the horizontal distance between adjacent
discontinuities.
• For set of discontinuities, it refers to the mean or
mode of discontinuities.
• Rock mass quality decreases with decrease in
spacing of discontinuities.
Spacing : Straight Scan- Line Surveying (direction can be any)
Areal frequency: Circular Scan-Line Surveying
• Scale dependent: sampling
planes has to have scales
smaller than the maximum
discontinuity trace length.

• Advantage (circular scan-lines

over straight scan-lines): is the
elimination of the direction
bias.

• The areal frequency a =

Where: N is the number of traces

intersecting the circular scan-
line
C is the radius of the scan-
line
Volumetric frequency v
3. Persistence
• The areal extent/ size of a
discontinuity plane.

• Majorly influence the shear

strength developed in the plane
of discontinuity

• Difficult to quantify the true

persistence
 Persistence

• International Society for Rock Mechanics (ISRM)

uses the modal trace length at the rock surface to
classify the persistence.
 4. Roughness
• Deviation (waviness) of a
discontinuity surface relative to
perfect planarity.

• Contribute to the shear strength.

• Large scale waviness may also

alter the dip direction.

• Friction resistance increases

with increase in roughness.

• Importance of roughness for

shear strength declines with
increasing aperture, filling
thickness or previous shear
displacement.
The methods of recording Roughness insitu
1. Linear profiling: where linear profile is tensioned
to form straight reference line along the
discontinuity for a distance of 1 to 2m.

• Approximate wave length and amplitude of

waviness are sampled where accessibility is no
problem.

• Photographs representing the roughness shall be

taken.

2. Profilo-meter (laser scanner): higher Ra values,

shows higher roughness.

65
Roughness
• ISRM suggests the following
descriptive terms using the
carpenters gage (profile gage tool.

• JRC can also be used to classify the

roughness of rock surface (recall the
previous lecture on JRC)
 5. Wall strength
• Is the uniaxial
compressive strength of
the rock walls of
discontinuity.

• Can be determined form

the Schmidt hammer test.

• May be lower than rock

block strength due to
weathering and alteration
of the walls.

• Is important component of
shear strength if rock
walls are in contact.
6. Aperture
• Is the perpendicular distance
between adjacent rock walls of a
discontinuity which is filled with air
or water.

• Can result from shear

displacement, outwash of filling
materials (e.g clay) or tensile
opening.

• Have influence on the

deformability, shear strength, and
permeability of discontinuities.

• Rock mass quality decreases with

increase in aperture.
Aperture: ISRM classification
7. Filling
• The material is filled in adjacent rock walls of
discontinuity.

• Usually weaker than parent rock and typically are sand,

silt, clay etc.

• Filled discontinuities have lower shear strengths except

those filled with quartz, calcite, pyrite( strong veins).
Filling

Behavior of filled discontinuities depends on:

• Mineralogy of the filling material
• Particle size
• OCR( higher OCR, higher strength due to
consolidation )
• Water content and permeability
• Previous shear displacement
• Wall roughness
• Width
8. Water (Seepage)
• The free moisture and the water flow in
discontinuities.
• Plays a negative role by:
•Reducing the shear strength,
•Increasing overlying weight ( due to saturation),
•Causing sub-surface erosion ,
•Acting as a lubricant in discontinuities,
•Causing seepage and uplift force (thereby reducing
shear strength and stability)
• Review the classifications for seepage through filled
and unfilled discontinuities in ISRM.
9. Number of Sets
• The number of discontinuity sets
in a discontinuity system.
• Dominates mechanical behavior,
stability and appearance of a
rock mass.
• Traditionally, the orientation of
discontinuities relative to the
face is considered of primary
importance

• ISRM classification for number of

sets
10. Block Size
• Important parameter for describing discontinuity
intensity and rock mass behavior.

• Block Dimensions determined by discontinuity:

• spacing
• number of sets
• Persistence

• Block Shapes determined by discontinuity:

• number of sets
• orientation

•Joints in sedimentary rocks relatively have regular

shapes

•However, in most cases, block shapes are irregular.

Block shapes
ISRM classifications of block size
 2.4. RQD, Rock Strength and rock mass classification
i. Rock Quality Designation (RQD)
• Was developed by Deere( Deere et al, 1967).

• Provide a quantitative estimate of rock mass quality

from a drill core logs and is dependent on borehole
orientation.
• Core diameter: should be at
least 54.7 mm (2.15 inches).

• Artificial fractures (identified by

unstained surfaces) are ignored
from calculations.

• RQD is defined as the

percentage of intact rock
pieces longer than 10 cm (4
inches) in the total length of
RQD estimation
Correlation of RQD with discontinuity frequencies
• RQD from linear discontinuity frequency  in a range
6 to 16

• RQD form volumetric discontinuity count ‘Jv’. For clay

free rock mass, Palmstroem recommends:

• This can be used when no core is available (for

surface exposures).

• RQD values may be misleading when joints are filled

with clay (which reduce the strength of rock mass) .

• Is not a good parameter where joint spacing is

around 10 cm.
2. Rock Strength
In softer rocks: Rupture occurs in a manner similar to
that in soils. The parameters described for soils hold.

Under high confining pressures (3000 bar), some rocks

may fail in plastic shear ( irreversible strain may be
attributed), (Murphy,1970)

Intact rock strength can be determined from

• Uniaxial compression or tension test
• Flexural strength test
• Tri-axial compressive strength test

Rock mass strength is affected by discontinuities and

degree of decomposition.

strength can be measured in-situ by direct shear

equipment or special tri-axial shear equipment.
 Rock strength : In-situ Direct Shear
• A diamond saw is used to trim a rock
block 0.7-1 and 0.3 m in height.

• Steel box is placed and grouted over the

trimmed rock block.

• Vertical load is imposed by a hydraulic

jack, while a shear force is imposed by
another jack until failure.

• All the jack forces and block movements

are measured and recorded.

• Deere (1976) suggests at least 5 tests

to be carried out, each with different
level of normal stress, to allow
construction of Mohr’s envelop.
 Rock strength: Borehole Shear Test (BST)
• BST measures peak and residual
values of ‘’ and ‘c’ in-situ in a
borehole of 75 mm diameter.

• Designed for
•near surface investigations
•in-mine testing of coal
•fractured rocks that are difficult
to core.

• It has been used in all soft to

medium-hard rocks.

• Up to 4 tests are conducted to

develop Mohr’s envelop
iii. Rock Mass Classification
Advantages of Quantitative rock mass classification.
• It provides better communication b/n geologists,
designers, contractors and engineers.

• Engineer’s observations, experience and judgment

can correlated.

• Engineers prefer numbers than descriptions.

• Helps in the more organization of rock quality

assessment.

• Form an integral part of the most predominant

design approach, the empirical design method.
Rock mass classification
Objectives:
• To assess parameters affecting the rock mass.

• To group rocks of similar behavior.

• To understand the characteristics of each rock

mass class.

• To derive quantitative data and guidelines for

engineering design.

• To provide a common basis for communication

between geologists and engineers
1. Rock Mass Classification: the Rock Mass Rating (RMR)
• Developed in 1973 in South Africa by Prof. Z.T.
Bieniawski.

The following six parameters are determined for each

structural unit:
• UCS
• RQD
• Joint or discontinuity Spacing
• Joint condition
• Ground water condition
• Joint orientation
Stand-up time the amount of time a tunnel will support itself with out any added
support structure.
Strike: perpendicular with the dip direction
ASCE: American Society of Civil Engineers
RMR :Example 1

An intact mudstone is observed to have joints

which are highly weathered and slightly rough.
The strength of intact rock is estimated to be 55
MPa with RQD of 60% and a mean fracture
spacing of 0.4 m. The fractures are observed to
be damp. Calculate the RMR value.
RMR Example: 2
A tunnel is to be driven though slightly weathered
granite with a dominant joint set dipping at
against the direction of the drive. Index testing and
logging of diamond drilled core give typical Point-
load strength index values of 8 MPa and the
average RQD values of 70 %. The slightly rough and
slightly weathered joints with a separation of
<1mm, are spaced at 300 mm. Tunneling
conditions are anticipated to be wet. What would be
RMR value and RMR class?

93
 Solution
Tabl Item Provided Value/explanation Rating
e
A.1 Point load index 8 MPa 12

A.2 RQD 70% 13

A.3 Spacing of 300 mm 10

discontinuities
A.4 Condition of (The slightly rough and 25
discontinuity slightly weathered joints
with a separation of < 1
mm)

A.5 Ground water Wet 7

B Adjustment for joint joint set dipping at -5

orientation for against the direction of
tunneling the drive
94
RMR RMR Class: Good 62
2. Rock mass classification: (Q-System)
• Was developed in 1974 in Norway by Prof. N.
Barton.

• Describes the rock’s quality for tunneling.

• Developed based on analysis done on 212 tunnel

case histories from Scandinavia.

• The Q-system is based on six parameters

• RQD
• Number of joint sets
• Joint roughness
• Degree of alteration
• Water inflow
• Stress condition
2. Rock mass classification: (Q-System)

Inter-Block Shear
Block Size Strength Active stress
Classification of individual parameters used in the Tunneling
Quality Index Q
Correlation between RMR and Q
• Proposed by Bieniawski in 1976 based on 111 case histories
Example: Q-System
• A 15 m span crusher chamber for an underground mine is to
be excavated in a norite at a depth of 2,100 m below
surface.

• The rock mass contains two sets of joints controlling stability.

The joints are undulating, rough and un-weathered with very
minor surface staining.

• RQD values range from 85% to 95 % and laboratory tests on

core samples of intact norite specimen give an average
uniaxial compressive strength of 170 MPa.

• The principal stress directions are approximately vertical and

horizontal and the magnitude of horizontal principal stress is
appoximately 1.5 times that of the vertical principal stress.
• 105
• The rock mass is locally damp but there is no evidence of
flowing water. Calculate the value of ‘Q’ and describe the
quality of the rock mass for tunneling.
 Solution:
=170 Mpa, over burden stress = (Norite: Density 2.7g/cm3 = 2700kg/m3,
unit weight= density * gravitational acceleration g =2700*10=27,000
kN/m3), there fore at a depth 2100, = h = 27,000*2100= 56,700
kN/m2=56.7 N/mm2=56.7 MPa . Hence =1.5*56.7= 85 MPa

Description Designati Value

on
1. Rock Quality Designation RQD 85-95%
Average
90%
2D. Two joint sets Jn 4
3B. Rough or irregular joints which are Jr 3
undulating
4B. Unaltered with very minor surface staining Ja 1
5A: Rock mass is locally damp but there is no Jw 1
evidence of flowing water. 106
6M: /= 170/85=2 (Heavy burst of rock SRF 10-20
expected) Q=+ = 22.5+4+0.067=26.56, Good
Average 15
3. Rock Mass Classification : Geological Strength Index (GSI)

Geological Strength
Index (GSI)
Hoek and
Marinos (2000)

GSI=45+5
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